DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
John Barton Payne, Secretary 



United States Geological Survey 

George Otis Smith, Director 

WATER-SUPPLY Paper 470 



GROUND WATER IN THE NORWALK, SUFFIELD, 

AND GLASTONBURY AREAS 

CONNECTICUT 



BY 



HAROLD S. PALMER 



Prepared in cooperation with the 

CONNECTICUT GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY 

Herbert E. Gregory, Superintendent 





WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1920 




Qass. 
Book. 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/groundwaterinnorOOpalm 



n^ 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

John Barton Paynk, Secretary 



United States Geological Survey 

' George Otis Smith, Director 



Water-Supply Paper 470 



GROUND WATER IN THE NORWALK, SUFFIELD, 

AND GLASTONRURY AREAS 

CONNECTICUT 



BY 



HAROLD S. PALMER 



Prepared in cooperatioB wifh the 

CONNECTICUT GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY 

Herbert K. Gregory, Superintendent 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1920 






i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

I JAN261921 

i DOCUMENTis UiVlSlOM 




'1" 



CONTENTS. 

Pagrc 

Introduction 7 

Problems ivlating- to water supplies in Connoctient . 7 

Water-supply investij?ations S 

Sourci' and charaotev of data '•) 

Geography : :i_ 30 

Topography 10 

Xorwalk area lo 

Suffield area 10 

(Hastonbury ai'ea 10 

Climate 11 

Surface waters 12 

Woodlands IT) 

Population __„ 10 

Geologic history 17 

Water-bearing formations lo 

Glacial drift 2o 

Till 20 

Stratified drift 22 

Criteria for differentiation of till and stratified drift 24 

Occurrence and ciiTulation of ground water 24 

Triassic sedimentary rocks 27 

Distribution 27 

Lithology and stratigraphy 27 

Occurrence of ground water 2s 

Water in pores 2s 

Water in bedding planes 2S 

Water in joints 20 

Water in fault zones 2!) 

Trap rocks 20 

Distribution 29 

Lithology and occui'rence of ground water 20 

Crystalline rocks 30 

Distribution ^ 3(» 

Lithology V><) 

Schists 30 

Gneisses of igneous origin 30 

Gneisses' of complex origin 31 

Occurrence and circulation of ground water 31 

Water in lamellar spaces 31 

"Water in joints and along faults 31 

Limestone 32 

Distribution 32 

Lithology and stratigraphy 32 

Occurrence of groiuid watei- 32 



4 CONTEXTS. 

Page. 

Artesian (■(Hiditioiis 32 

Springs 3-1 

Seepage springs 34 

Stratum springs ; 34 

Fault and joint springs . 34 

Relation of wells to springs 34 

Recoverj" of ground water 35 

Dug ^vells . 35 

Construction 35 

Lifting devices 35 

Bailing devices 35 

Pumps 1 36 

Siphon and gravity rigs 39 

Rams 39 

Windmills and air-pressure tanks 40 

Yields of dug wells 41 

Infiltration galleries 43 

Driven wells , : : 43 

Drilled wells 44 

Springs 46 

Ground water for public supplj' 47 

Introduction _i 47 

Typical plants 50 

Greenfield, Mass 50 

Hyde Park, Mass 50 

Lowell, Mass 50 

Xewburyport, Mass 52 

Newton, Mass 52 

Plainville, Conn : 52 

Quality of ground water 52 

Analyses and assays . 52 

Probable accuracy of analyses and assays 55 

Chemical character of water ^ S'l 

Interpretation of analyses and assays 57 

Contamination 60 

Tabulations 62 

■ Temperature of ground water ^ 

Detailed descriptions of towns 66 

Darien 66 

New Canaan 74 

Norwalk 83 

Ridgefield 94 

Weston 104 

Westport 109 

Wilton 117 

East Granby 124 

Enfield 131 

Sufl;ield 139 

Windsor Locks 148 

Glastonbury ^ 152 

Marlboro 161 

Index 167 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 
Plate I. Map of Connecticnt sli<)\\ius pbysioj^raphic divisions and areas 
eoveri'd by wator-supply papers of the I'liited States Geo- 
logical Survey S 

II. Topographic map of the Norwalk area showing distribution of 

woodlands and locations of wells and springs cited In pocket. 

III. Geologic map of the Norwalk area In pocket. 

IV. Topographic map of the Sullield area showing distribution of 

woodlands and locations of wells and springs cited In pocket. 

V. Geologic mai) of the SulHeld area In pctcket. 

VI. Topographic map of the Glastonbury area showing dislribution 

of woixllarids and locations of wells and springs cited In pocket. 

VII. Geologic map of the Glastonbury area In pocket. 

VIII. A, Estuary in Darien, Conn.; B, Section of sti'atiiietl drift, 

Darien, Conn 66 

IX. A, Plant of the Tokeneke Water Co., Darien. Conn.; B, Sti-ati- 

tietl- drift plain, East Granby. Couu 72 

X. A, Offset trap ridges near Tariffville, Conn.; i?. Flowing v.ell 

drilled in sandstone, East Granby, Conn 126 

XL A, Sand pit in stratilied drift, Thompsonville, Entield, Conn. ; B, 

Stratilied drift overlying till, Thompsonville, Enheld, Conn 134 

XII. Massive granite gneis.s, East Glastonbury. Conn 154 

Figure 1. Diagram showing mean monthly precipitation at Norwalk, 

Conn., 1892-1913 12 

2. Diagram showing mean monthly precipitation at Hartfor<l, 

Conn., 1846-1853 and 1S68-190S 13 

3. Diagram showing mean monthly precipitation at ^Nliddletown. 

Conn., 18r)8-1902 13 

4. Diagram showing tlie usual relation of the water table to the 

land surface on hills and in valleys 26 

5. Diagram showing the relation of the water table on till- 

covered hills to the water table in valleys of stratified drift 

in glaciated regions 26 

6. Diagram showing conditions under which artesian wnters 

may exist in the Ti-iassic sedimentary rocks in Connecticut^ 33 

7. Diagrtim showing two types of installation of "house 

pumps '' 37 

8. Diagram showing siphon Avell .nnd domestic waterworks 38 

9. Graph showing the recovery of the well of J. S. Dewey after 

pumping 40 

10. Graph showing relation of inflow to drawdown in the well of 

J. S. Dewey 42 

11. Diagram showing two types of air lifts 45 

12. Graph showing average composition of waters analyzed, 

grouped according to water-bearing formations 63 

5 



b ILLUSTEATIOFS. 

Page. 

Figure 13. Hypotlietical section of Long Neck Point, Darien 60 

14. Profile across New Canaan (A-A' on Pis. II and III), show- 
ing iniclulating plateau and the valleys cut below it Tt; 

1.5. Profile across Eidgefield (section C-C on Pis. II and III)___ 9G 

16. Projected north-south profiles across Wiltoii, shelving terraced 

character of the plateau 110 

17. Profile across- Wilton (section B-B' on Pis. II and -III), show- 

ing dissection of the terraced plateau 110 

18. Geologic section across East Granby and Suffield (section 

D-D' ou PI. V) . 120 



GROUND WATER IN THE NORWALK, SUFFIELT), AND 
GLASTONBURY AREAS, CONNECTICUT. 



By Harold S. Palmei?. 



INTRODUCTION. 

PROBLEMS RELATING TO WATER SUPPLIES IN CONNECTICITT. 

The census of 1910 reported the popuhition of Connecticut as 
1,114,756. The area of the State is 5,004 square miles. The average 
density of population is therefore about 220 to the square mile, but the 
distribution of population is markedly uneven. More than 53 per 
cent of the inhabitants are gathered into 19 cities, each containing 
over 10,000. The cities are rapidly increasing in population, but 
parts of the State — about 24 per cent of the towns — are more 
sparsely settled to-day than in 1860. To speak broadly, the people 
of Connecticut are engaged in two occupations — manufacturing and 
mixed agriculture. Manufacturing is increasing at a rapid rate ; 
agriculture at a slower rate, but Avith a distinct tendency toward 
specialization. The fine scenerj^ of parts of the State has led to the 
development of country estates and shore homes. 

As the stage of cultui-e in a region rises it is necessary progres- 
sively to improve and increase the water supplies. Wild tribes are 
satisfied with the waters of springs and streams. Pastoral peoples 
need somewhat more water. Agricultural regions must have water 
at points where it may be conveniently used ; wells are made, springs 
are improved, and surface waters diverted to provide water at the 
points of utilization. In some arid regions extensive works are 
constructed to supply water for irrigation, as well as for domesti<' 
use and for watering stock. Industrial and mercantile communities, 
in which the population is concentrated in cities, demand a great 
deal of water, not only for human consumption Imt also for innum- 
erable technical purposes, such as for washing fabrics, for cooling 
metals, and for generating steam in boilers. 

An annual precipitation of 45 inches gives Connecticut in the 
aggregate large supplies of both surface and ground water, but the 
precipitation is sometimes deficient through periods of several weeks 
or months. Consequently farmers must endure periods of drought, 

7 



8 GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

manufacturers iiiiist provide against fluctuating water power, and 
the inhabitants of congested districts must arrange for adequate 
public supplies. With increase in population and diversification of 
interests conflicts have already arisen between water-pov/er users 
and domestic consumers, as well as between towns, for the right 
to use a particular stream or area. Demands are also being made 
hj prospective users of the waters for irrigation and drainage. The 
quality of water acquires new importance with the effort to improve 
the healthfulness of the State and to reclaim the waters now 
polluted by factory wastes and sewage. The necessitj^ of obtaining 
small but unfailing supplies of potable water for the farm and for 
the village home furnishes an additional problem, for the condition 
of many private supplies in Connecticut is deplorable. 

To meet the present situation and to provide for the future, 
State-wide regulations should be adopted. Obviously the first step 
in the solution of the Connecticut water problem is to make a com- 
prehensive study of both surface and ground waters to obtain 
answers to the following questions : How nuich water is stored in 
the gravel and sand and bedrock of the State?. How much does 
the amount fluctuate with the seasons? What is tlie quality of the 
water ? How may it best be recovered in large and small amounts ? 
What is the expense of procuring it? How much Avater may the 
streams of the State be relied upon to furnish ? To what extent are 
the stream waters polluted? How may the pollution be remedied? 
To what use should each stream be devoted? What is the equitable 
distribution of ground and surface water among the conflicting 
claimants — industries and communities ? 

WATER-SUPPLY INVESTIGATIONS. 

The study of the water resources of Connecticut was begun by 
Herbert E. Gregory in 1903 for the United States Geological Sur- 
yej. A preliminary report was issued in 1904.^ A discussion of 
the fundamental problems relating to the State as a whole, pub- 
lished five years later,- meets in a broad -wnj the requirements of 
the scientist and engineer, but it is not designed to furnish data for 
use in a quantitative study of ultimate supply and utilization. It 
was recognized that conditions in the State are so varied that in 
order to obtain data of direct practical value the conditions in each 
toAvn and so far as feasible around each farm and each village 
should be investigated. 

' Gregory, H. E., [Notes on the wells, springs, and general water resources of] Con- 
necticut : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 102, pp. 127^168, 1904. 

2 Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground M-ater resources of Connecticut: U. S. 
Geol. SuiTey Water-Supply Paper 232, 1909. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SI 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 470 PLATE [ 




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AND OTHER DETAILED WATER-SUPPLY PAPERS OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



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INTRODUCTION. 9 

J\e;ilizin<r the inipDrtniiio dI" siuli stiulies to Connecticut, the State 
joined with the Federal Government in order to carry on this work. 
In 1{)11 a cooj)erative agreement was entered into by the United 
States CTleok)gical Survey and the Ccmnecticut (leolo^ical and Natural 
History Survey I'or the purpose of obtaining information concerning 
the quantity and qualit}^ of waters available for municijial and 
private uses. The investigation was placed in charge of Mr. (iregory 
and was to be conducted through a period of two years or more, the 
cost to be shared equally by the parties to the agreement. The work 
has consisted in gathering information concerning public water 
supplies; measuring the dug wells used in rural districts, and ob- 
taining other data in regard to them; obtaining data concerning 
drilled wells, driven wells, and springs; collecting and analyzing 
samples of water from wells, springs, and brooks; studying the 
character and relations of bedrock and surficial deposits with refer- 
ence to their influence upon the ground-Avater supply. 

A. J. Ellis spent the field seasons of 1911, 1912, and 1913 on this 
work under the cooperative agreement. One report^ has been pub- 
lished on 13 towns around Waterbury, and another- on ten towns 
around Hartford, four around Saybrook, three around Salisbury, 
and on Stamford, Greenwich. Windham, and Franklin. 

A third repoit, the field work for whicli was done by G. A. Waring 
in 1915, v^■ill cover six towns around Meriden and Middletown. A 
fourth report, the field work for which was done by H. S. Palmer in 
1914 and 1915, will cover 18 towns between Southington and Granby. 
A fifth report on four towns in the Pomperaug Valley is in prepara- 
tion by A. J. Ellis. 

The accompanying index map (PI. I) shows the areas covered by 
the several reports. The present report covers three areas — the Nor- 
walk area, comprising the towns of Darien, New Canaan, Norwalk, 
Ridgefield, AVeston, Westport, and Wilton; the Suffield area, com- 
prising the toM^ns of East Granby, Enfield, Suffield, and Windsor 
Locks; and the Glastonbury area, comprising Glastonbury and Marl- 
boro. 

SOURCE AND CHARACTER OF DATA. 

The principal well data are given in tables appended to the descrip- 
tions of the several towns. The depths of the dug wells were 
measured with a tape. The information as to depth to rock in wells, 
consumption of water, and fluctuations and reliableness of supplies 

1 Ellis, A. J., Ground water in the Waterbury area, Conn. : U. S. Geol. Survey Water- 
Supply Paper 397, 1916. 

^Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, A. .!., Ground water in tlie Hartford, Stamford, Salisbury, 
Willimantic, and Saybrook areas, Conn. : D. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supplv Paper 374, 
1916. 



10 GROUISTD WATER II>T jSTOEWALK AKD OTHER AREAS, CONE". 

is in general based on statements by well owners. The elevations of 
Avells and springs were taken from the contour maps. The statements 
as to yield of drilled wells are based on tests made by the drillers 
when the wells were completed and reported by the owners. Informa- 
tion concerning the flow of a few springs was obtained by measure- 
ment of the overflow, the yield of others was computed from measure- 
ments of the velocity and cross section of the streams issuing from 
them, and the yield of still others was estimated by the ©wners. The 
kindness of well owners, superintendents of water works, and. others 
in supplying information has been great. The information thus 
obtained is acknowledged with thanks. Free use has been made of 
the technical literature dealing with water supplies, and credit is 
given for specific facts taken from such sources, but the report con- 
tains also material gathered from the reports of previous investiga- 
tions, some of which can not well be attributed to any one author, 

GEOGRAPHY. 
TOPOGRAPHY. 

Connecticut comprises three phj^siographic divisions, as shown in 
Plate I — an eastern highland, a western highland, underlain by 
resistant crystalline rocks, and an intervening central lowland, which 
is underlain by relatively soft sedimentary rocks. 

Nortooik area. — The Norwalk area is in the seaward portion of 
the western highland. It rises rather gradually northward from 
sea level at the south, and its highest point is Pine Mountain, in the 
northern part of Ridgefield, 1,060 feet above the sea. Except near the 
shore there is very little level ground, and the region comprises 
I'idges and valleys running north and south. The ridge crests ap- 
proximate in elevation a southward or southeastward sloping plane 
and mark an old plateau below which the streams have incised their 
vail.ej'^s. The general southerly trend of the streams is due to the 
southerly tilt of the surface. 

Eu-f^leld area. — The Suffield area is in the central lowland, adjoins 
Massachusetts, and is crossed by Connecticut Eiver. It is for the 
most part a nearly level plain, 120 to 280 feet above sea level, above 
which rise elevations of two types— (1) low, rounded hills with 
cores of sandstone and cappings of glacial till, and (2) high, long 
ridges due to the resistance to erosion of upturned sheets of trap rock. 

Gla^onhury a/rea.. — The Glastonbury area is in part in the central 
lowland and in part in the eastern highland. The lowland portion 
comprises the north v/est quarter of the town of Glastonbury and is a 
plain similar to the plain of the Suffield area. The highland portion 
comprises most of Glastonbury and all of Marlboro. It is in general 



ck()<;i;ai'm V. 



11 



.similaf to Ihc Norwalk area in ((>[)oiirai)liy, but the trend ol' the 
ri(.lj>vs and \ alleys is less imiforni. 

CLIMATE. 

Tlic ()iiLstandin<>' features ol" the climate ol" Connecticut are the 
hitili huini(hty. the usual iiiiifonnity of precipitation throuj>hout the 
year, and the rehitively great length of the Avinter.^ The winters 
hist five or six months, and sj)ring. summer, and autumn are crowded 
into the remainder of tlic year. Spring is l)rief, but summer is longer 
and well defined and with the excei)tion of short hot waves is \Qvy 
pleasant. The autumn is delightful, as it has many warm days with 
cool nights. The spring comes so quickly that the snow melts rapidly 
and sometimes makes strong freshets. The winds are prevailingly 
westerly, but in JNIay and June there is a good deal of east wind. 

The Weather Bureau maintains no stations within the areas here 
treated, but the data given for New Haven nearly represent the con- 
ditions in the Norwalk area, those for Hartford the conditions in the 
SufHeld area, and those for Middletown the conditions in the Glaston- 
bury area. It is probable, however, that in parts of the Norwalk and 
(Tlastonbury areas the climate may be a little colder and the rainfall 
slightly greater because of greater elevation. Some of the more im- 
portant data for the three stations mentioned are given in the follow- 
ing table : 

CUmat'w daid for Ncir Haven, Hartford, and Mkldlelmvn, Conn. 

[From U. S. Weather Biir. Bui!. W., section 105, 1912.] 



TcmperaturG(° F.'): 

Mean annual 

Maximiun 

Minimum 

Precipitation (incxies): 

Mean annual 

Mean annual snowfall 

Frosts: 

First killing (average date) 
Last killing (average date) , 

Earliest recorded 

Latest recorded 



New 
Haven. 


Uart- 
ford. 


'i9. 5 
101 

-14 


48.5 
98 
-20 


45. 89 
40.3 


44.30 
47.2 


Oct. 17 
Apr. 20 

Sept. 28 
May 17 


Oct. 10 
Apr. 28 
Sept. 19 
May 12 



Middle- 
town. 



48. 7 
10.3 
-15 

49. 25 
51.7 

Oct. 2 
Apr. 27 
Sept. 19 
May 12 



The precipitation in Connecticut is in general abundant, though 
sometimes there occur more or less protracted summer droughts. 
The following tables are summaries of longer tables and show the 
average, maximum, and minimum monthly precipitation at various 
points in or near the areas under consideration. 

1 Summaries of climatological data of the United States, hy sections : V. S. Dept. Agr. 
Weather Bureau Bull. W, section 105, 1012. 



12 GEOUXD "WATER IN NOEWALK A'SB OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

Suinmai-y of month]}/ precipitation at points in Connecticut. 
Norwalk, 1892-1913." 





Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


.Tune. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Year. 




3.44 

0.48 
1.04 


3.60 

7.08 
.49 


4.35 

8.55 
1.22 


3.62 
7. SO 

.77 


4.09 

8.53 

.07 


2.76 

10. 54 

.56 


3.87 
10.12 

.83 


5.10 

11.38 

.37 


3.63 

7.87 
.98 


4.03 
9.09 

.68 


3.56 

8.86 
.95 


3.84 

8.58 

.92 


45.89 


Maximum . . 


57.85 




34.88 







Hartlord, 1846-1853, 1868-1908.'' 





Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. Nov. 


Dec. 


Year. 




3.47 
8.48 
1.08 


3.43 

8.28 
.50 


4.00 
9.38 
1.00 


3.14 
11.17 

.74 


3.55 


3.32 


4.30 
15.14 
1.33 


4.59 

10.27 

.90 


3.08 

10.88 

.25 


3.85 

13.33 

.60 


3.64 
8.29 

.74 


3.33 
9.34 

.67 


44.30 


Maximum 


9.10 10.81 
.20 .15 


56.36 
33.64 











Middletown, 1858-1902.'' 





Jan. 


Feb. Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


Jmie. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Year. 


Avera.se 

Maximum 

Minimum 


4.22 
9.24 
1.45 


4.. 33 

7.56 

. 63 


4.74 3.53 
9.49 13.37 
1.12 1 1.09 


1 

3. 88 3.31 

8.05 8.05 

.22 .39 


4.. 51 
13.43 
1.10 


4.85 
10.22 
1.16 


3. 67 

11.64 

.49 


4.05 

14.51 

.89 


4.26 

9.50 

.75 


3.90 
11.18 
1.20 


49.25 
68.77 
37.08 

















a Oroodnough, X. H., Rainfall in New England: New England Waterwcflcs Assoc. Jour., Sept., 1915. 
t U. S. Dept. Agr. AV earlier Bureau Bull. AV, section 105, 1912. 




JAN. FEB. MAR. APR, MAY JUNE. JULY AUf. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC 

FiGri:i; 1. — Diagram sliowing mean monthly precipitation at Norwalk, Conn., 1892-1913. 

Fioures 1, 2, and 3 are graphic representations of the data given in 
the aljove tables. 

SUilFACE WATERS. 

The iNTorwalk area is drained for the most part by streams 15 to 
20 miles louff tributary to Long Island Somid, but a little of the 



GEOar^APTIY. 



13 



iioithorn part is (IraiiuHl by tributaries of lliidsoii Kivoi-. T\n\ 
Siidicld area is drained entirely to the Connect iciil. 'i'iie (llaston- 




JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AU6. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC- 

I'iGiitE -. — Diagr.-im showing nicnn monthly precipitation .\t Il.iitfoid, Conn,, 1,S4(»-1853 

and 186.S-1008. 

bnry area is in part drained by westward-flow ino- streams directly 
iribntary to Connecticut River and in part by southward-flowing 




JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE. JULY AUG, SEPT, OCT NOV. DEC. 

Fku'uk 3. — Diagram .showing mean niontlily pn'cipitation .it MidtUctown. roni\.. l.s."').S-1002. 

streams that enter Salmon Eiver, whicli joins the Connecticut at 
East Haddam. In tlie XorAvalk area and in the highland portion 
of the Glastonbury area there are many lakes and ponds. Some 



14 



GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN, 



of the swamps are former water bodies tliat have been filled w^itli 
sediment. 

When water falls, as rain or snow, a part evaporates, another 
part enters the ground, and a part flows off in streams. Some of 
the gi'ound water eventually returns to the surface in springs, seeps, 
and swamps and enters the streams. Some is lost by evaporation, and 
b}^ transpiration of trees and other plants. The ratio of run-off 
to rainfall varies greatly, as it depends on many factors, including 
the rate of precipitation, its distribution throughout the year, the 
character and thickness of the soil, steepness of slopes, abundance of 
vegetable growth, amount of frost, and character and structure of the 
rocks. 

The following tables give some idea of the amount and variations 
of the run-off in two basins in Connecticut : 

Monthly run-off of Pomperaug River at Bennetts Bridge and precipitation in 
Pomperaug drainage basin. '^ 

[Drainage area 89.3 square miles.] 



Month. 



Precipi- 
tation 
(inclies). 



Run-off. 



Inclies on 

drainage 

basin. 



Percent 
of precipi- 
tation. 



1913. 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

191-1. 

January 

February _ 

March 

April 

May 

June ■ _ 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

1915. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

Year, October, 1913, to September, 1914 . 
22 months for which tlie run-oil is given 



3.19 
3.53 
9.66 
3.05 

2.72 



2.15 
2.14 
5.63 
4. 35 
3.19 
2.83 
5.91 
3.66 
.36 
3.31 
3.37 
2.82 



6.21 
5.70 
.15 
1.59 
3.37 
2.01 
6.31 
8.09 
2.94 



45. 65 
80.20 



0.25 
.35 
2.57 
2.73 
2.24 



1.33 

.58 

4.32 

2.94 

2.35 

.63 

.70 

.45 

.20 



.51 



1.61 

1.60 

1.21 

.45 

.78 

1.79 

.92 



38.95 
48.41 



6.8 

9.9 

26.6 

89.5 

81.7 



61.8 
27.1 
76.6 
67.5 
73.6 
22.3 
11.3 
12.3 
55.6 



14.8 



1,070.0 
100.6 
35.9 
22.4 
12.4 
22.1 
31.3 



85.4 
60.4 



oData obtained from unpublished report by A. J. Ellis, U. S. Geol. Survey. 



GEOCiltAPH V 



15 



I'l If ii)it(tti<i)i iiikI niii-dff ill lloHsiitonic ilidiiiai/c ha-siii iiborc ddnhinlavillc, 
Co, UK. t'.KU-t'l'l.l. iiinl 1>)<Hi-l*)0'.i." 



[!'i:iiimi;.' 



', I .iilO s([iiaio mi'.os. 





Piecipi- 

tatioii 

(inches). 


■Run 

TiU'lios oil 

<li'aina;,'r 

busiii. 


o/r. 


Year. 


Ppr cent 

of ])rocipi- 
tution. 


1901 


56.94 
61.43 
f)6. &5 
46.31 
55. 80 
40.26 
44. 75 


29. 65 
38. 62 
.■59. 6.5 
22.17 
29.47 
19. 67 
19.^5 


52.1 


1902 


(>2. 9 


i9o:i . 


69. 8 


1906 


47.0 


1907 


52.9 


1908 . 


48.8 


1909 


44.4 







oCompiled from Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Undcrground-vt'ater resources of Connecticut: U. S. 
(ipnl. Siirvpv Water-Snppiv Paper 232, p. 29, 1909; and from Surface-water supply of tlie I'nited States, 
1907-8 Parti, and 1909, Part I: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 241 and 261. 

Tlu> Tenth Census i-epor( on water power gives figures taken from 
various sources concerning the ratio of run-off to precipitation in a 
nnmlver of drainage basins. The data for four of these basins in 
the nortlieast-ern United States are summarized in the following 
tal)le : 

Prrcii)itafif)ii <nuJ nin-off in ccrtfiiii (lidiinn/c Jidxiiis- in ihc Dorfhrasimi T^iiilcfl 



Basin. 


Area c.( 

basin 

(square 

miles). 


Length ol 
record 

(years). 


Aiinua! 
precipi- 
tation 
(inches). 


Average run-cff (per cent ' f 
precipitatirni. 


Mean. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Mini- 
mum. 


Connecticut River above Hartford 


10,234 
78 

20.37 
339 


7 
5 

13' 


42.7 
46.1 
50 

■!9. 79 


62.? 
47.6 
62. 9 

.56. 5 






Sudbury River 


1 


West Branch of Croton River. . 




Crcton River 











"Months. 

The difference in the per cent of run-off' from tlie basin of the West 
Branch of Croton River and from the whole Croton drainage }>asin 
is due to the fact that tlie former is a steep, rocky, thin-soiled, and 
relatively untilled region, Avhereas tlie latter includes much flat-lying 
and cultivated land and therefore absorbs more of the rain. 

WOODLANDS. 

The woodlands of the Xorwalk area occupy aoout 38 per cent of 
the total area and for the most part comprise deciduous tree species. 
The most prominent trees are oak, hickory, chestnut, elm, maple, 
beech, and birch, with a few conifers. The Avoods are more abundant 
away from the Sound shore. The three shore towns, Darien, Nor- 



16 



GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 



walk, and Westport, are about 25 per cent ATooded, and tlie four in- 
land towns, New Canaan, Ridgefield, Weston, and Wilton, are about 
45 per cent wooded. 

The Suffield area is about 38 per cent wooded, and its most cleared 
portions lie along Connecticut River. ]\Iany of the stands on the 
loAvland plains comprise chie% white and yelloAT pine and scrub oak, 
with an undergrowth of sweet fern and " poverty " grass. The flora 
on the hills is of the deciduous type like that of the Xorwalk area. 

The Glastonbury area is about 63 per cent wooded and contains 
chiefly deciduous trees. There are extensive cleared tracts along 
Connecticut River, but the eastern part of the area is nearly all 
wooded. The town of Marlboro is about 80 per cent wooded. 

In these areas, as throughout other parts of Connecticut, a great 
amount of cordwood and a good deal of lumber are produced. The 
manner of cutting has heretofore been very wasteful, and few at- 
tempts at reforestation have been made. Cut-over lands have been 
allowed to grow up with sprout and staddle, and the woodlands have 
in consequence deteriorated steadily. In the last decade, however, 
there has been some sj^stematic planting of forest trees, and the cut- 
ting has been a little less ruthless. The wood crop would be very 
profitable Avere the industry prosecuted in a proper manner, as the 
soil is in general veiy good, and if given a chance will mature most 
kinds of trees sufficiently for the market in 20 or 30 years. 

POPULATION. 

Population of certain, toirns in Connecticvt. 





Area 

(square 
miles). a 


Population. & 


Towa. 


1900 


1910 


Per cent 
gain. 


Inhabit- 
ants per 
square 

mile, 

1910. 


Norwalk area: 

Dai'ien 


12.63 
22.86 
22,68 
35.44 
20.27 
19.63 
28.08 

17. 72 
34. 25 
43.31 
8.15 

.54. 16 
22.97 


3,116 
2,968 
19,932 
2,626 
840 
4,017 
1,598 

684 
6,699 
3, 521 
3,062 

4.260 
'322 


3,946 
3,667 
24,211 
3,118 
831 
4,259 
1,706 

797 
9,719 
3,841 
3,715 

4,796 
302 


27 
24 
21 
19 

6 

7 

17 

45 

9 

21 

13 


312 




160 


Norwalk . . . 


1,068 


Ridgefield 


88 




42 


Westport 


217 


Wilton 


61 


Sufliold area: 

East Granbv 


45 


Enfield ' . 


284 


Suffield.- 


89 




456 


Crlastonbury area: 


89 


Marlboro. . 


13 







a Areas mcasm-ed wth planimeter on topographic maps. 

b Population figures from Connecticut State Register and Manual, 1919. 

c Loss of 1 per cent. 

(i Loss of 6 per cent. 



GROU^n) WATER IX XORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 17 

GEOI.OOH IIISI<^I?V. 

Very little i^=: Icnowii of tlio oai-jy £io<)l()oic history of ("onneeticut, 
for the rocks are veiy old and havo suti'ei'ed .so many changes that 
the evidence given by them is almost impossible to interpret. It is 
certain that in ))re-C'anibiian and early Paleozoic time sediments 
were deposited. The earliest were sands, muds, and clays, which 
became consolidated to form sandstone and shale, bnt later some 
limestone was deposited. Xo fossils have l)een found in these rocks, 
but they have been referred to the late Cambrian and early Ordovi- 
cian bj'- studj'ing the relative positions of the formations and by 
tracing them into )egions where more evidence is to be had. Sedi- 
ments were also deposited during the Carboniferous and very prob- 
al)ly in the intervening periods as well. 

Toward the end of tlie Paleozoic era there were several great 
mountain-building disturbances, characterized by compression of 
the earth's crust in an east-west direction and the intrusion of vast 
quantities of igneous rock. To the mashing and intrusion is due 
the change of the old shales and sandstones to the schist and gneisses 
of the Xoi'walk area and the highland portion of the Glastonbury 
area. The change of tlie Cambrian and Ordovician limestone to a 
coarse marble (Stockbridge dolomite) was brought about by the 
same process. The igneous rocks, in large part, were also crushed 
and converted to gneisses. 

During Triassic time the mountains were deeply eroded and much 
of the debris was deposited in a troughlike valley in central Connecti- 
cut, making the sedimentary rocks of tlie Suffield area and the low- 
land portion of the Glastonbury area. These rocks are for the most 
j)art red sandstones, shales, and conglomerates, but they include some 
dark bituminous shales and green and gray limy shales. In some 
places in the red rocks there are footprints of reptiles, both large and 
small, and a few of their bones have also been found. The footprints 
and bones have been identified as belonging to Triassic reptiles. Re- 
Tuains of fishes are found in places in the bituminous shales and fur- 
ther prove the age of these beds to be Triassic. 

The deposition of the Triassic sediments was interrupted three 
times by the gentle eruption of basaltic lava, which spread out across 
the wide valley floor and which now^ forms the trap ridges between 
the Farmington and Connecticut valleys, in part in the Suffield area. 
Into the buried sediments were also intruded other masses of basaltic 
lava that formed sills and dikes, such as the sill of Manitick Moun- 
tain, in the western part of Suffield. Subsequently (in Jurassic 
tiriieO the flat-lying sedimentary rocks and the intercalated trap 
sheets were broken into blocks by a series of faults that in general 

154444^—20 2 



18 GEOUiSTD WATER IjST NOEWALK AI^D OTHEE. AEEAS^ CONIsr. 

cut diagonally across the lowland in a northeasterly' direction. Each 
block was rotated so that its southeast margin v,'as depressed and its 
northwest margin elevated. 

There is no sedimentary record of the interval between the Triassic 
period and the glacial epoch, but the erosion that took place then has 
left its mark. During- the Cretaceous period the great block moun- 
tains formed b_y the faulting T\"ere almost completely worn away. It 
is believed hj Davis ^ and others that during part of Cretaceous time 
the sea advanced over Connecticut as far as Hartford, and that the 
submerged area was covered with marine sediments. No such marine 
beds have been found, however, and the only e^'idence of such an in- 
cursion of the sea is indirect. Most of the streams in this region 
flow southward, but parts of the larger ones have sontheasterly 
courses. This condition could be explained, by assnmdng that when 
the postulated Cretaceons beds were raised they were tilted a little 
to the southeast and the streams across them took southeastward 
conrses. The more vigorous streams according to this hypothesis 
were able to cut their southeasterty channels into the diseordsnt rock 
surface ]3elaw the Cretaeeons deposits, whereas. the smaller streams 
were turned back to the old channels which existed before the Creta- 
ceous sedimentation ocemrre^ and which, it is assumed, ra;n south- 
ward. 

It Avas noted by Pereival ^ that the highlands may be regarded as 
" extensive plateaus " which " present, when viewed from an elevated 
point of their surface, the appearance of a general level, with, rolling 
or undulating outline, over which the view often extends to a very 
great distainee, interrupted onfy hj isolated s^maanits- of riclge&, usually 
of small extent." Rice ^ has described the phenomeBon as follows: 

If we should imagine a sheet of pasteboard resting upon the summits of the 
highest eievations of Litchfield Comnty and slopiaig soiitheastward.: in an in- 
elined plaiae^, that irioaginary slieet of pasteboard, would rest on n.earlj'- all the 
STimmits oi' both the eastern and western highlands. 

Barrell * has shown, however, that th.e hilltops approximate not 
an inclined plane but a stairlike succession of nearly horizontal 
planes, each a few hundred feet lower than the next one to the north. 
Traces of these terraces are fotmd in m^any parts of both the eastern 
and western highlands of Connecticut, but ai'e not discernible in the 
lowlands. Figure 1& (p. 119) is a compasite projection of north- 
south profiles of hilltops and ridge crests of a part of the Norwalk 

1 Davis, W. M.,, The Triassic fo-rmation of Connecticut : T^. S. G«ol. Survey Eigliteenth 
Ann. Kept., pt. 2. p. 105, 1898. 

- Pei'cival, J. C4., Eepo-rt o® the geology o£ Connecticut, p. 477, 1842. 

"Rice, W. X., and Gregory, H. E., Manual of the geology of Connecticut: Connecticut 
GeoT. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, p. 20, 1906. 

■^ Barrell, Josepla,. Piedmont terraces of the- northern Appalachi-ins- and their origin : 
Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 24, pp. 688-601, 191.3. 



tiKOLOi.lC IIJSTOKV. 19 

;irea ;iml shows three more or less \vell-(k>\eh>|)(Ml phiij*js determined 
by the concordant elevations. 

The rocks of this plateau arc the roots of mountains tliut stood 
tJu-ri' in late Paleozoic ajid early jMcsozoic time and that were 
eventually Moru away. Erosion prochiccd a more or less smooth 
inclined i)lajie or s-eries of level planes which when uplii'tcd con- 
stituted the plateau surface. Since the uplift erosion has deeply 
trenched the plateau u)itil only a small part of its original surface is 
preserved. 

During- the Pleistocene or glacial epoch the continental ice sheet 
tliat overrode most of the northern United States covered the whole 
of New England. It was of great thickness, and as it moved slowly 
southward it remodeled the topography !>y sci'aping away the de- 
cayed rock accumulated at the surface, by breaking oft and grinding 
down projecting lodges of rock, and by redepositing the debris. The 
major featuies of the topography v.erc left unchanged, but tlie de- 
tails were greatly altered. In general the relief was decreased. The 
soil mantle was replaced by glacial drift of two tyjjes — till and 
stratified drift. The till, v.hich A\as deposited directly by the ice, is 
of moderate thickness, and its surface is similar to the surface of 
tlie underlying bedrock but somewliat smoother. The stratified drift, 
wliich Avas deposited by the streams that flowed out from the glacial 
ice. tilled tlio larger valleys to a considerable extent, making broad 
])lains. 

During the recent epoch there has been no considerable change in 
ii)e topography. Small amounts of alluvium have been deposited 
in valleys, some swamps have been filled, and some lakes have been 
changed to swamps by being fdled witli sediment. Tliere has been 
slight erosion over the whole region, but the changes are in genera! 
imperceptible save for the terracing of stratified-drift deposits in the 
larger valleys. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

The water-bearing formations of Connecticut may be divided into 
two classes — bedrock and glacial drift. The bedrocks are the under- 
lying consolidated, firm rocks, such as schist, granite, trap, and sand- 
stone, and they are exposed at the surface only as small, scattereci 
outcrops. The glacial drift comprises the unconsolidated, loose ma- 
terials such as sand, clay, and till that occur at the surface in most 
of the State and overlie the bedrocks. These materials are by far 
the more important source of ground water and are of two chief 
varieties — till, also known as "hardpan" or "boulder clay," and 
stratified drift, also known as '* modified drift " or " glacial outwash.'' 

On the geologic maps (Pis. III. V, and VII) are shown the areas 
occupied by the two principal tyi)es of ghn ial drift as well as the 



20 GEOUIs^D WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

outcrops of bedrock. The Triassic sandstone (including" also shale 
and conglomerate), the trap rocks, the limestone, and the crystalline 
rocks are differentiated by color on the maps, but no attempt was 
made to separate the varieties of the crystalline rocks. The rock out- 
crops are indicated as small patches, which have roughly the shape 
of the actual outcrops but most of which are disproportionately large 
because of the small scale of the map. Inasmuch as in the field work 
it was necessary to follow the roads, many outcrops in the spaces 
between roads may have been unmapped. 

GLACIAL DRIFT. 
TILL. 

Till, which is an ice-laid deposit, forms a mantle over tlie bedrock 
of much of Connecticut. Its thickness is in general from 10 to 4:0 
feet but in places reaches 80 feet. The average thickness of the till 
penetrated by 56 drilled wells in the areas under discussion is 24 feet. 

The till is composed of a matrix of the pulverized and granulated 
fragments of the rocks over which the ice sheet passed and of larger 
pieces of the same rocks embedded in the matrix. The principal 
minerals are quartz, clay, feldspar, and mica, but small amounts of 
their decomposition products and of other minerals are also found. 
There has been but little chemical disintegration and decomposition 
of the till, and it has in general a blue-gray color. Near the surface, 
however, where the iron-bearing constituents of the matrix have been 
weathered, j;he color is yellow or brown. ^Vliere the material is in 
large part derived from the red Triassic rocks the till has a reel- 
brown to red color. The boulders of the till are characterized by 
their peculiar subangular shapes with polished and striated facets. 
Many of the boulders have facets that are in part concave where 
spalls have been flaked off as the boulders were pressed together in 
the ice. The boulders are very abundant and are scattered over the 
fields and in cut banks. As a rule, a number of different varieties 
of rocks are represented in any one place. 

Some of the till, particularly that part below the weathered zone, 
is very tough, as is indicated by the popular term "hardpan" often 
applied to it. The toughness is in part due to its having been thor- 
oughly compacted by the great weight of the ice sheets, and in part 
to the interlocking of the sharp and angular grains. It seems prob- 
able that the more soluble constituents of the matrix have to some 
extent been dissolved by the ground water and have been redeposited 
in such a way as to cement the particles together. 

The relative amounts of the different sizes of material are shown in 
the following table.^ The material treated by mechanical analysis 

» Dorsey, C. W., ^nd Bonsteel, J. A., Soil survey in the Connecticut Valley : U. S. Dep-t. 
Agr. Div. Soils Field Operations for 1899, p. 131, 1900. 



\VATi;i;-Bi:Aii i -n >. ; J( )H.mations. 



21 



is the fine earth that roniained after the coarse gravel and bouUlers 
luul hoon reniu\ed. The lirst three analyses n'i)re^ent till derived 
in large part from Triassic sandstone and shales; the fourth a till 
derived from crystalline rocks. The boulders and pebbles mixed 
with the fine eartli (tlic matrix) constitute from 5 to 50 per cent or 
('\ en more of the total vohimc. 

Mahuniial <tu<ilijxi s of t<tij>iy loams (tiU .so/7.s). 



milliineters. 



»ira\('] 

C;iarse sand . . . 
Medium sand.. 

Fine mmi 

VtTV fine sand. 
8il*: 



Fine silt 

Clay 

Iy()ss by drying at. UoT. 
Loss on ignition 



2-1 

1-0. .5 

0. .5-0. 2 

0. 25-0. 1.5 

0. 1-0. 0.5 

0. a5-0. 01 

0. 01-0. Oft5 

0. 00.5-0. 0001 



1 


2 


3 


2 


12.4.5 


5.26 


3.3.5 


11.86 


8.66 


S.60 


13. 98 


18. 83 


31.2.5 


14. 7.S 


21.00 


34.22 


17. .51 


IS. 83 


4.3-5 


S.20 


8.70 


6.20 


8.67 


.5.30 


(i. .57 


10.23 


10. 87 


1.36 


1.04 


1.01 


2.03 


l.(J9 


1.77 



3. o."; 

3.8.5 
8.22 
11.. 53 
29.82 
21.26 
6.45 
12.20 
1.54 
2.35 



1. Stony loam fixini Triassic rocks half a milo south ol Bloomlielil, Conn. 

2. Stony loam from 'Trias.sic rock-:, Enfuld, Conn. 

3. Stony loam from Trins.sic rocks 13 miks south of Hazard villo. Conn. 

4. Stony loam from cr\stalline rocks 2 miles south of Ash]cy^"ille, Mass. 

The water-bearing capacity of tlie till is difficult to estimate for 
any large area because of its extreme variability. A small sample 
may be tested by drying it well, then soaking it in water until it is 
saturated, and finall}^ allowing the excess to drain away. A com- 
]>arison of the weight after drying with the final weight will show 
how much water has been absorbed. Gregory ^ made such an experi- 
ment on a typical mass of till collected near New Haven, Conn., and 
determined that 1 cubic foot could absorb about 3.45 quarts of water. 
In other words, the till is able to absorb water to the extent of 11.55 
per cent of its total volume. Other samples would undoubtedly 
show higher and lower results, but this is prol»ably not far from the 
average. 

The pores of the till are relatively small, so that water does not 
soak into it very rapidly. On the other hand, the pores are very 
numerous and are able in the aggregate to hold a good deal of water, 
as shown above. The fineness of the pores is a disadvantage in 
that it makes absorption slow\ but it is at the same time an advantage 
in that it retards the loss of water by seepage. The till of Con- 
necticut is more pervious than that of many other glaciated regions, 
because the hard, resistant rocks from which it w^as largely derived 
yielded grains of quartz and other siliceous minerals rather than 
fine rock flour. 



' Gregory, II. E., and Ellis. E. E., Undorirrounrl-water sources of Connecticut ; U. S. 
Geol. Survey Watei-Supply Paper 232, p. 139, 1900. 



22 GROUiNl) WATER IX aSTOEWALK , AI\D OTHER AREAS, COjSriT. 

At many places there are lenses or irregular masses of water- 
washed and stratified material within the unsorted and iinstratified 
till. These were presumably deposited by subgiacial streams that 
existed but a short time before they were diverted or cut off by the 
forward movement of the ice sheet. The lenses are of considerable 
value where they happen to be cut by a well, as they in effect increase 
the area of till tributary to the well and so a,ugment its supply. 
Well diggers often report that at a certain depth they " struck a 
spring." Such reports probably refer to cutting into lenses of this 
type. 

The till has no striking topographic expression. The plastering 
action of the ice sheet by which it was deposited tended to give it a 
generally smooth, surface. In a very few places there are ridges 
or terrace-shaped masses of till built as lateral moraines along the 
flanks of tongues of ice that protruded beyond the front of the main 
ice sheet. In many places the till was heaped up beneath the ice 
sheet to form drumlins^^ much as sand bars are built in river chan- 
nels. The drurnlins are gently rounded hills and may or may not 
have cores of solid rock. 

STRATIFIED DRIFT. 

In contrast with the till, which was formed by direct ice action, 
is the stratified drift, a water-laid deposit. Stratified drift may 
have originated either v/ithin, on, under, or in front of the ice 
sheet. In Connecticut only subgiacial and extragiacial stratified 
drift are found, and except for their topographic expression these 
two types are very similar. 

Stratified drift is composed of the washed and well-sorted, re- 
worked constituents of the till together with some debris made hj 
the weathering and erosion of bedrock. The water that did the 
work was for the most part the melted ice from the glacier. Since 
glacial time the streams have in places added to the deposits of 
stratified drift, but elsewhere and probably to a greater extent they 
have eroded and removed parts of those deposits. The distinction 
between the glacial stratified drift and the more recent stream allu- 
vium is hard to draw, and although the latter is a little less clean 
and yields a little less water, the distinction need not be drawn for 
a ground-water study. The mapping and separation of mappable 
units within the glacial drift in this report is based in large part 
on the capacity of the material for carrying' water. A different 
basis of mapping might be used in a report made for some other 
purpose, 

Near the end of the glacial epoch the climate became mild and 
vast amounts of ice were melted. The relativelv soft till was 



WATi:U-r.i:AUlX(i FOKIMiVTIONS. 



23 



easily eroded and supplied a tiivaL abiaulaiice of debris. Some 
of the .streams flowed in sinuous subglacial channels, in wliich they 
made deposits that have now become the long, winding ridges called 
cskors. The water in some of the channels beneath the ice was 
uiuler hydraulic liead, as is shown by the fact that some eskers 
cross ridges and gidlies regardless of the grades. 

Where the debris-laden waters came to the edge of the ice sheet 
kames were made. Some of the material was carried beyond the 
front of the ice sheet and was laid down as an alluvial deposit in the 
\alleys. Xot all the materials composing the wide outwash plains 
have been deposited by running water. There are also beds of finer 
material — clay and silt rather than sand — that were laid dovv-n in 
lakes and ponds which stood in shallov/ depressions in front of the 
ice. 

The stratified drift consists of lenses and beds laid one against 
another in a very intricate and irregular way. Some of the lenses 
consist of fine sand, others of coarse sand, others of gravel, and still 
others of cobbles, but the sands are the most abundant. The material 
of each lens is rather uniform in size, but there may be a gi'eat 
difference between adjacent lenses. In general the finer materials 
form more extensive beds than the coarser. Some of the beds of 
clay and fine silt, though only an inch or two thick, have a hori- 
zontal extent of hundreds of feet. Lenses of gravel may be 2 or 3 
feet thick and not extend over 10 feet horizontally. 

The sand lenses are composed almost entirely of quartz grains. In 
the gravel lenses are pebbles of many kinds of rocks. The clay beds 
consist of trvie clay, thin flakes of mica, and minute pirticles of 
quartz and feld.spar. All the deposits contain iron, which gives them 
brown colors. 

The following analyses^ show the character of the stratified drift : 

Meelianlcrtl anah/scs of yfratipeel (irift. 





Diameter in 
millimeters. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


Gravel 


2-1 

1-0.5 

0. .5-0. 25 

0. 25-0. 1 

0.1-0.05 

0. 05-0. 01 

0. 01-0. 005 

0.005-0.0001 


4.98 

11.31 

33. 41 

33.75 

10.82 

2.09 

1.03 

1.65 

.50 

.80 


2.20 
7.51 

3:3.50 
^ •i2.05 

13. 50 
4.47 
1.75 
2.7S 
.80 
1.30 


0.50 
1.51 
7.96 
23.27 
41.82 
9.15 
6.32 
4.40 
1.92 
3. 68 


0.00 

Trace. 

.21 

1.50 

19.55 

33.67 

28.54 

9.50 

2.60 

4.75 


0.00 




.29 




.40 




.73 






Silt 


32. 57 


Fine silt 


29.10 


Clav 


25. 65 


Loss on drying at 100° C 


2.17 







3.53 









1. Coarse, shnrp sand 2 milos souih of Bloomfield. 

2. Sandy loam soutiiwest of Windsor. 

3. Fine sandy loam half a mile nortiieast of South Windsor. 

4. Recent flood-plain deposits three-fourths of a mile southeast of Ilartrord. 

5. Briekclay from glacial lake Lcds. hHifReld. 



Dor: cy, C. W., and Bonstoel, J. A., op. cit. 



24 GROUND WATER IN NORWAI.K AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

The most striking difference shown by a comparison of this table 
with the table of mechanical analyses of till samples (p. 21) is that 
in each sample of stratified drift almost all the material is included 
within two or three sizes, whereas in the till there is a wider diversity 
of sizes, even exclusive of the boulders, which were taken out before 
analysis. 

The topographic form assumed by most of the stratified drift is 
that of a sand plain, which may be modified by terraces, by valleys 
cut below it, or by kettle holes. In the highlands small bodies of 
stratified drift form eskers — long, winding ridges, 10 to 40 feet high, 
in some places with narrow crests and in others with flat tops, and 
generally with steep flanks. In the lowlands there are kame areas, 
which consist of hummocky hillocks and short ridges of stratified 
drift irregularly scattered. 

CRITERIA rOR DIFFERENTIATION OF TILL AND STRATIFIED DRIFT. 

In many places it is difficult to determine whether the mantle rock 
is till or stratified drift, and a decision is reached only after weigh- 
ing several factors. The presence of distinct stratification is in- 
dubitable evidence that the deposit is stratified drift, but in localities 
where there are no outcrops or where the outcrops do not show dis- 
tinct stratification the determination may be uncertain. Till areas 
are in general characterized by the presence of numerous large 
boulders, which in many places have been used for building stone 
fences. These boulders are subangTilar and faceted and may have 
concave surfaces and glacial scratches, which would distinguish them 
from the well-rounded boulders found in a few places in very coarse 
beds of stratified drift. Moreover, areas of stratified drift have 
characteristic topographic features, such as broad ]3lains and ter- 
races, with kettle holes, eskers, and kames. Because of its great 
porosity the upper part of the stratified drift in many places is dry 
much of the time and therefore favors certain types of vegetation 
wdiich either get along with little water or are able to send their 
roots down very deep. Under such conditions there are likely to be 
many white and yellow pines, cedars, and scrub oaks, with an under- 
growth of sweet fern and poverty grass. The till has no distinctive 
floral characteristics. 

OCCURRENCE AND CIRCULATION OF GROUND AVATER. 

Some of the water that falls as rain or melts from snow soaks into 
the ground. A surface layer of sand or gravel or a thick mat of leaf 
mold or of needles, as in woods, probably affords the most favorable 
conditions for high absorption. On steep slopes the rain runs off 



^VATKK-H1■:AKI^■^< vo]l\iati(3NS. 25 

rapidly nnd rolativoly littlo ontors the <xt<)iin<l. Whon the *>;r<)iiii(l is 
frozen it boc'omos almost iiii])OJ'vions, and ab^orjilion is at a minimum. 
Heavy rains concentratod iii a short tim(> -will in L'ciuMal rcsnlt in 
loss absorption than an equal amount of rain over a longer time. 

The amount of "water that may be absorl)ed is very great. With 
a rainfall of 48 inches a year, each acre Avould receive in the course 
of a year over 1,300,000 gallons. If one-fourth of this (luantity 
Mere to soak into the ground and be concentrated into a single 
spring, that spring would discharge an average of over 2 qnai-ts 
a minute throughout the year. 

Water nu)ves through the groiuid for the most part because of 
gravity. The water sinks through the pores of the soil until it 
reaches an impervious bed or the ground- water level, and then 
it moves laterally. Except in the stratified drift lateral movement 
over great distances does not occu.r in Connecticut, because the 
porous soils are cut into small discontinuous areas by the numerous 
ledges of bedrock. In large valleys occupied by stratified drift 
there is in general an underflow in the direction of the surface 
streams. Inasmuch as the porous soil cover over the bedrock is 
as a rule not ver}' thick, the direction of movement is for the most 
part the same as the slope of the surface of the ground. The rate 
at which water moves depends on the amount of Avatei', the steep- 
ness of the slopes, and the porosity and permeability of the water- 
bearing materials. Porosity is the ratio of the volume of the crevices 
between the grains to the total volume of the substance, and does 
not depend on the size of the pores. Permeability is the capacity 
of the material to transmit water and depends largeh^ on the size 
of the individual pores. Large crevices like those of gravels favor 
rapid circulation. Some fine clays have as high porosity as the 
gravels, Imt because of the interstitial friction in the minute pores 
they are virtually impermeable. 

At some depth the pores of the earth are saturated with water. 
The rains and melting snows supply water which would saturate the 
rock deposits throughout but for the lateral escape of the ground 
water. The upper surface of this saturated zone is known as the 
water table. 

In Connecticut the water table is in general near the surface of 
the ground in and after seasons of high precipitation in areas where 
the mantle rock is thin or discontinuous and Avhere the surface is 
relatively level. High, level terraces are an exception to this rule. 
The water table is likely to be particularly high in small deposits that 
fill depressions in the surface of the bedrock. Along the edges of 
streams, lakes, and swamps the water level is at the surface. It is 
relatively low in times of drought on steep slopes and in ]) laces 



26 



GROUIs^D WATER IN NOEWAL.K AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 




FiGURB 4. — Diagram showing the usual relation of 
the water table to the land surface on hills and 
iu valleys. 



where the mantle rock is thick. The depth to the water table 
fluctuates with the seasons and may be increased by drainage of wet 
grounds, by heavy draft on wells, and by transpiration from vege- 
tation, as well as by changes in the rates of precipitation and evapor- 
ation. The improvements made by man on farms and the engineering 
works in cities artificially lower the water table. In Connecticut 

the greatest fluctuation is 
on steep hillside slopes 
from which the water 
drains rather readily. In 
such situations there is also 
rapid though often tempo- 
rary replenishment of the 
ground water after rains. 
There are in Connecticut 
no extensive water-bearing 
formations such as the Da- 
kota sandstone, which is 
used as a source of water supi^ly in much of the Great Plains. The 
ground waters in Connecticut are derived from rain or melting snow 
near by. In manj^ places water lies at the base of the mantle rock, 
where rapid downward movement is prevented by the relatively im- 
pervious bedrock. Many wells dug to solid rock and blasted a few 
feet into it take advantage of this supply. This water bed also feeds 
Avater into the fissures of the bedrocks. 

The till and stratified drift contrast greatly in texture and there- 
fore in their ability to hold up the water table. Because of its 
greater permeability the stratified drift not only absorbs water more 
readily than the till but also loses it more readih^ In most regions 
the water table is nearer the 
ground surface in valleys than on 
hills, as shown in figure 4. In 
much of Connecticut, however, 
where the vallej^s are filled with 
stratified drift and the hills are 
covered with till, the reverse con- 
dition exists. Because of the 
much slower rate at which the 
water percolates through the till 
the water table is held up nearer the surface on the till-covered 
hills than in the valleys of stratified drift, as is diagrammatically 
shown in figure 5, 

With respect to their capacity for yielding water there is also a 
very important difference between the two types of glacial drift. On 
account of its high porosity and permeability, the stratified drift in 




Figure 5. — Diagram showing the relation 
of the water table on till-covered hills 
to the water table in valleys of strati- 
fled drift in glaciated regions. 



WATKK-BKAUINU FOKMATIO^S. 27 

many places (ontaiub large (iuanlities of water which it will yield 
I'reel.y to wells and which may be readily replenished when raijis 
come. The till, on the other hand, contains nmch less available 
water and gives it out at a much slower rate. (See p. 21.) The 
stratified drift is the more valuable for obtaining large supplies f loiu 
wells for municipal and mdustrial u^es, but the till U likewise of 
great value, as it is widely distributed and in general yields enough 
water for domestic use to inexpensive dug wells. The till is also the 
reservoir which feeds most of the small springs that make gravity 
^ujjplies for many farms. 

TRIASSIC SEDIMENTAHY HOCKS. 
DISTRIBUTIOX. 

The mantle rock of the Suffield area is underlain by rocks of 
Triassic age. Most of these are sedimentary, but the ridge of Peak 
^fountain, in East Granbj:' and Suffield, is in part underlain bv' trap 
rocks. Tlie northwest corner of the town of Glastonbury, in the 
Glastonbury area, comprising about 18 square miles, is underlain 
by Triassic sedimentary rocks. No rocks of this age occur in the 
Norwalk area. 

LITHOLOOy AND STRATIGRAPHY. 

The lowest of the Triassic beds lie unconformably on the up- 
turned edges of the crystalline rocks and may be seen in contact with 
these rocks at a few points along the western border of the area 
they underlie. The boundary against the crystalline rocks on the 
east is believed to be a major fault. 

According to Rice and Gregory,^ the Triassic sediments 

would naturally be characterized in a broad way as red sandstone. The 
sandstones, sometimes coarse, sometimes fine, consist mainly of jiTiiins of quart:'., 
feldspar, and mica resulting from the disintegration of the older rocks v»'hioli 
form the walls of the trough in which the sandstones were deposited. The 
prevailing red colors of the sandstone are not due to the constituent grains, 
but to the cementing material, which contains a large amount of ferric oxide. 
* * * While the name sandstone would properly express the prevalent 
aad typical character of the rock, the material is in some strata so coarse 
as to deserve the name of conglomerate and in others so fine as to deserve the 
name of shale. In the conglomerates the pebbles may be less than an inch 
in diameter, but tliey are sometimes much coarser. In some localities occurs 
a rock which has been called " giant conglomerate," in which some of the 
boulders are several feet in diameter. The conglomerates occur chiefly near 
the borders of the Triassic areas, and in these it is especially easy to recog- 
nize the rocks from the disintegration of which the pebbles have been deri-i.tnl. 
In general, it may be said that the pebl">les in any particular area are derived 

^ Rice, W. N., and Gregory, H. E., Manual of the geology of Connecticut : Connecticut 
Gcol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 0, pp. 163-lB."., 1906. 



28 geoujs^d watee in noewalk and othee aeeaS; conn. 

from rocks in the immediate vicinity. Tlie conglomerates in tlie Connecticut 
Vrillej!- area are obviously derived from the gneisses, schists, and pegmatites, 
which are the prevalent rocks of the highlands. * * * The shales, like 
the sandstones and conglomerates, are prevailingly red, owing their color 
likewise to the presence of ferric oxide. Some strata of shale, however, con- 
tain in considerable quantity hydrocarbon compounds derived from the de- 
composition of organic matter. These bituminous shales are accordingly 
nearly black. In the Connecticut Valley area there are two thin strata of 
these bituminous shales, which have been shown, by careful search for out- 
crops, to have a very wide extent. The red sediments, however, are dominant. 
There is great variation in the material composing the beds and in their struc- 
ture, and the changes in the rock are very abrupt. The stratification is un- 
evi-n and irregular, and the beds are wedge-shaped or lenslike rather tiian 
uniformlj'- thick over wide extents. 

Although the beds wei-e originally horizontal and in continuous masses they 
have been tilted to the east 15° or 20° and have been broken into blocks. The 
f(.»rct'S which caused the faulting also opened many joints and fissures, along 
which there has been little or no movement. These joints are in general par- 
allel to the bedding or nearly at right angles to it, though joints are found with 
every conceivable inclination. The sandstones and conglomerates have more 
abundant and more extensive joints than the shales, for they are rigid and 
relatively brittle rather than plastic and tenacious. The joints ai"e rarely more 
than 50 feet apart and in general are found at intei'vals of 2 to 8 feet. The 
joints are more abundant and wider near the surface than they are in depth. 

OCCURRENCE OF OROUXD WATER. 

Ground Avater occurs in the Triassic sedimentary rocks in four 
ways — in pores throughout the rocks, along bedding planes, in 
joints, and along fault zones. Though originally derived from 
rain and snow the Avater has, for the most part, reached the Triassic 
beds by infiltration and percolation from the saturated mantle rock. 

Wafer in pores. — The sandstone, shale, and conglomerate consist 
of particles of quartz, feldspar, mica, and other less abundant min- 
erals and of pebbles of older rocks, all cemented together by fine clay 
and films of iron oxide. The spaces between the grains are not com- 
pletely filled with the cementing material but are partly open and 
may contain water. In the aggregate large quantities of water are 
held in this way, but on account of the smallness of the openings the 
water is not readily given off. Bare outcrops, as in quarries, are for 
the most part dry on the surface, though the interior of the rock 
may be moist. In the sandstones and conglomerates the water in the 
pores is slowly given off to joints, from which it may be recovered by 
means of drilled wells. The shales have pores so very fine that 
the}^ yield but little water. In some places the shales are so imper- 
vious as to act as restraining beds that concentrate the water in the 
pores of the coarser beds. 

Water in hedding flanes. — There is a tendency for the water 
in the pores to be concentrated in and transmitted along the lower 



WATKR-BKARING 1 OKMATIONS. 29 

parts of tlic conrher beds Avlierc tliey rest on finer ami relatively 
impervious beds. It is probable that a few of the wells drilled in 
Triassic rocks draw their sui)plies from such horizons. 

\]'ot('r in jo/' /its. — Joints are the most important source of water in 
the bedrock of Connecticut. They are more abundant and are wider 
in tlie sandstojie and conglomerate than in the shale. These extensive 
flat crevices are good watei' bearers because they arc large and offer 
little capilhiry resistance to the (irculation of water, because they 
draw on and make available the supply of water stored in pores, 
and because they are of relatively great extent, Most of the drilled 
wells and a feAv dug wells in the Triassic areas draAv on the joints. 

Water in fault zones. — The faults that break the Triassic rocks 
of Comiecticut into great fault blocks are not single fractures but 
rather zones containing many parallel planes along which move- 
ment has taken place. Because of the great number of water-bearing 
joints in such zones Avells drilled along fault lines are likely to yield 
very large supj)lies of Avater. 

TSAP BOCKS. 

l.'ISTiUlU 'I'lox. 

Trap rocks underlie parts of Peak Mountain, in Suffield and East 
(iranby, and of Manitick Mountain, in Suffield. There is also a 
suiail dike in the eastern part of the town of Westport, in the Nor- 
walk area. Their extent is so small that they are not an important 
source of water. 

LITIIOLCK.Y AND (»CCl KRF.XCK OF GROrXD AVATKR. 

The trap rocks are den-e. heavy dark-gray to nearly black rocks 
and aie more or less completely ciystaliine on a small scale. Like 
the sedimentaiy rocks in which they are inclosed, the traps are cut 
by numerous joints, some of wliich Avere made by the initial cooling 
and shrinkiige of the rock and others by the jarring incidental to 
faulting and tilting. The joints are more abundant near the margins 
of the masse'-^. 

Trap rocks have a tAvofoid bearing on the occurrence of ground 
Avater. The joints may contain Avater and the sheets may act as im- 
pervious layers to restrain the circulation. Trap rocks haA^e a A^ery 
low porosity and carry vii-tually no Avater in pores, and they contain 
rio Avater corresponding to that along bedding planes of sedimentary 
rocks. Water circulates through the joints and fault zones in traps 
just as in sandstones, but in general less abundantly. EA'idence of 
such circulation is given by the yellow and broAvn stains of iron along 



30 GROUND WATER IK" NORWALK AXD OTHER AREAS, CONIST. 

the joints, due to oxidation and hydration of the iron-bearing min- 
erals. The immediate source of the water in the trap rock is the 
water in the formations with which it is in contact; this water enters 
it through the network of interconnecting joints. Because of its 
hardness and resistance to erosion the trap forms bold hills with cliff's. 
This is a disadvantageous form so far as water storage is concerned, 
because of the facility with which water will drain oiit= 

CSYSTALLINE SOCKS. 
DISTEIBIJTIOK. 

Crystalline rocks, so named because their constituent mineral par- 
ticles consist of crystals rather than fragments, underlie all of the 
Norwalk area except about 9 square miles in Eidgefield, in which 
the l^eclrock is limestone, and all of the Glastonbury area except the 
sandstone area in the northwestern part of the town of Glastonbur}". 
The extent of these rocks is about the same as that of the eastern and 
western highlands, because the characteristic typographic features of 
the highlands depend in large part on the resistance of these rocks 
to erosion. 

LITHOLOGY. 

The areas under consideration contain three t5^pes of cr3^stalline 
rocks — schists, gneisses of igneous origin, and gneisses of complex 
origin. 

Schists.— TjipiGSil schists are metamorphosed sandstones and shales, 
which in turn are consolidated sands and muds. The mountain- 
making movements to which this region has been subjected squeezed 
and folded the sedimentary rocks. At the same time the great 
changes in temperature and pressure metamorphosed the rocks com- 
pletely; the quartz sand grains were crushed and strung out, and 
the cl&jQj material was changed to crystalline mica. The mica flakes 
were turned roughly parallel to one another and so give the rock a 
pronounced cleavage, called schistosity. Though other minerals are 
present the quartz and mica are dominant. In the Norv^ralk area the 
Berkshire schist is of this tj^pe, and in the Glastonbury area the 
Bolton schist. 

Gneisses of igneous origin. — In connection with the dynamic meta- 
morphism of the region great masses of molten rock were intruded 
into the sedimientary beds. They have been metamorphosed like the 
schists but to a lesser degree, and the changes are textural rather 
than mineralogic. The dark minerals of the igneous rock have 
been somewhat segregated and parallelly oriented, so that the rock 



WATKll-liKARlNU FORMATIONS. 31 

hiis n fair cleavaire. The Thomaston ofranite gneiss^ ainl the Dan- 
biirv graiiodiorite gneists ^ of the Xoi'walk aveu and tlie (ilastoii- 
bury' and ISIaromas granite gneisses of the Ghist(>ni>iiry area aie of 
this type. 

f'/ieisses of campie-x' origin. — The intrusions of igneous mateiial 
were in part massive and gave rise to the gneisses of igneous origin, 
as desorilwd ai)ove. and they were in part in the form of multitudi- 
nous thin injections into the schists. Certain parts of the schist have 
been so extensively injected that their character is materially altered, 
and they have become gneisses of complex origin. The thin intru- 
sions for the most part follow the planes of schistose cleavage and 
somewhat obscure them, but others cut across them. The Waterbury 
gneiss^ of the Norwalk area and the Hebron gneiss^ of ti;o 
(ilastonbury area are of this type. 

OCCLRREXCE A>:f> CIRCULATION OF GROUND WATEi:. 

Water in lamellar spaces. — In the scliists and to some extent in tl>c 
gneisses of complex origin, but not in the granite gneisses, there is 
a little water in the spaces between the mica flakes where they are 
bent around quartz grains. Most of the opening-s are flat, thin, and 
not extensive, and they interconnect very imperfectly. In tlie most 
thoroughly crumj)Ied schists there are small tubular openings along 
the furrows and ridges. Tlie schistose structure aids in promoting 
rlie circulation of ground water chiefly because it gives rise to nu- 
merous joints. 

Waier in joints and along faults. — The forces that caused metamor- 
phisrn also made many fractures in the rocks. The fractuit?s are 
even more numerous in these rocks than in the sandstones, ]iut they 
bear water in the same way. Inasmuch as it is virtually impossible 
to trace faults in the crystalline recks they v\'ill be considered here 
only as compound or enlarged joints in which circulation is espe- 
cially vigorous. 

There are two principal sets of joints, one of which is nearhr hori- 
zontal and the other nearly vertical. The vertical joijits, according 
to Ellis,- are from 3 to 7 feet apart where jointing is well developed^ 
In some sheeted zones 1 to 15 feet wide the joints are spaced at in- 
tervals of 3 inches to 2 feet, but in some places they are 100 feet 

1 Sorao of the geologic names used in this report (Thomaston granite gneiss. Danhury 
urauodiorito yneiss, Glastonbury granite gneiss, Waterbury gneiss, and Hebron gneiss) 
are the pvorisional names ^iven to the rocks on the proiiminary geologic map of Con- 
necticut by ClregGiy and Robinson (Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 
1907). These names aie herein used only for reference and may differ from those which 
will finally be adopted by the United States Geological Survey in it:: geologic folios. 

" Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. B.. Undergiound-water i-esources of Conaecti-eut ; U. S. 
Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 2.32, p. 0.5. 1900. 



32 GROUND WATER IN NOR WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

t'.part. Though the spacing increases with increasing depth it is on 
the average less than 10 feet to a depth of 100 feet. Ellis finds that the 
horizontal joints are on the average 1 foot apart for the first '20 
feet, between 4 and T feet apart for the next 30 feet, and from 6 to 
30 feet apart at depths of 50 to 100 feet. The intersecting hori- 
zontal and vertical joints form a very complicated system of connect- 
ing channels through which water may circulate. Water is supplied 
to the network of channels by percolation from the overlying mantle 
of soil, and it may be recovered by means of drilled wells. 

LIMESTONE. 
DISTRIBUTION. 

The Stockbridge dolomite underlies about 9 square miles of valley 
land in the town of Ridgefield, in the Norwalk area. 

LITHOLOGY AXD STRATIGRAPHY. 

The Stockbridge dolomite is a metamorphosed .dolomitic limestone, 
composed chielly of calcite and dolomite, and for the most part has 
a thoroughly crj^stalline texture. Some zones, however, have been 
but slightly metamorphosed and have still the texture of a typical 
limestone. Because of the solubility of the calcite the rock has slight 
resistance to erosion and constitutes valley areas. It is one of the few 
formations in Connecticut whose age is definitely known, for it has 
been traced into regions in Massachusetts where fossils have been 
found. 

OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 

Water is carried in the Stockbridge dolomite in the same way as 
in the schists, gneisses, and sandstones, namely, in joints. The 
joints, however, have been in large part widened by the solvent action 
of the water floAving through them, so that they are excellent channels 
of circulation and should yield abundant supplies of vrater. It is 
to be expected, however, that the waters derived from this forma- 
tion will be rather hard. Unlike most dolomitic marbles Stockbridge 
dolomite has a very low porosity and carries but little water in pores. 

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 

The word " artesian '' is derived from the name of the old French 
province of Artois, in which wells of this type first became widely 
known. Originally the term was applied only to wells from which 
Avater actually floAved, but now it is applied to Avells in Avhich the 
AA'ater rises by hydrostatic pressure aboA^'e the point at which it 



AKTKSIAX ("OXDITIOXS. 



33 



enters the hole. The tei'in is sometimos imi)i-oi)erlY used for any 
deep AVC'II of small diameter, ie<2;ar(llcss of Avhether the water is 
under pre^>iire or not. The (jiiestion A\hetlier an artesian well will 
tiovc or not de!iend> as iniich on the altitude of the mouth of the well 
as it does on the pressure of the water. 

The essential conditions for artesian AA'aters are the existence of a 
bed of jiorous or fractured rock through Avhich water may flow, hav- 
ing an elevateil outcrop where water may soak into it, with relatively 
impervions strata above and beloAv to prevent escape of water and 
loss of pressure, and a snpply of water to the outcrop sufficient to fill 
the resei'voir. 

In Connecticut these conditions may be fulfilled in two principal 
ways — where sandstones between shales or sandstones between trap 
sheets function as the pervious and impervious strata, or where a 
blanket of compact till forms the restraining layer over bedrock that 
is perviou.s by reason of a network of fissures. In general, the rocks 




FiGCKE 6. 



-Diagram showing conditions under which artesian waters may exist in the 
Triassic sedimentary rocks in Connecticut. 



contain so many faults and open joints that the water escapes and 
it-^ pressure is dissipated, so that flowing wells are few. Nearly all 
the wells are artesian, however, for the water in them rises con- 
siderably above the point of entrance. 

A few wells pass through beds of relatively impervious shale and 
draw water from porous sandstone, as shown in figure 6. The under- 
lying restraining member may be either a shale bed, as at A, or the 
dense crystalline mass on which the Triassic beds rest, as at B. In 
general the beds of the Triassic sedimentary rocks are not of sufficient 
lateral extent to form important reservoirs. In a few wells a sheet 
fif trap rock forms the upper restraining member, as illustrated at 
C" in figure G. 

The wells that draw water from the network of fissures are much 

more numerous than those drawing from the pores of the sandstones 

and conglomerates. In some of these rocks there are no connecting 

joints that might discharge water beloAV the level of the wells; in 

1.54444°— 20 3 



34 GROUiS^D WATER IN NOEWAI^K AlN^D OTHER AREAS, 00^1^, 

otliers -the joints are tight enough to offer material resistance to the 
escape of water. Otlier wells draw water from fissiu'ecl rock that is 
0¥erlain by an impervious blanket of till that acts as a restraining 
member. 

SPRINGS. 

A spring, in the broadest sense of the word, is a more or less definite 
surface outlet for the ground water. Springs are formed where the 
surface of the gromid is so low that it reaches the water table. A 
well is in a sense an artificial spring, for it is made by artificially 
depressing the ground surface so that it reaches the water table. Tlie 
springs in the areas covered by this report may be grouped under 
three principal heads, as described below, 

SEEPAGE SPRINGS. 

One method of escape of water from tlie ground is by slow seepage 
in saturated areas on hillsides and along swamps and streams. This 
process may go on over a wide space if the formation is of uniform 
texture, or it may be concentrated in a small body of more porous 
material. To the latter class belong the so-called ^' boiliu-g springs,'' 
in which the water enters with sufficient force to keep the sand Iwt- 
tom in gentle motion. In a spring of either class the supply may be 
artificially concentrated by the excavation of a colleetiiig reservoir. 

Seepage springs are very likely to be found in small swales cut 
back into a slope. It seems probable that the flow" of w^ater is the 
primary cause of the excavation of the swales, but that the swales 
secondarily tend to concentrate the flov/. Areas of diffused seepage 
may develop into true springs by such a process. 

STSATUM SPRINGS. 

Stratum springs are those in which an outcropping or only 
slightly buried ledge or layer of impervious material interrupts the 
flow of ground water and forces it to the surface. Springs of this 
type may be made by a ledge of rock underlying saturated soil, by 
beds of sedimentary rock of different porosity, or by a body of till 
underlying stratified drift. 

FAULT AND JOINT SPRINGS. 

Faults and joints greatly facilitate the circulation of water through 
rocks, and where they reach the surface they may supjoly springs. 
Some faults carry a good deal of water under considerable pressure 
and are in a sense analogous to artesian wells. 

RELATIONS OE WELLS TO SPRINGS. 

Wells may be considered artificial springs. (See above.) Some 
springs that have been improved by ^excavation to a considerable 
depth are hard to distinguish from wells that have obtained water 



EEOOVliRY OF GROUXl> WATER. 35 

!it moderate depths. In this repoi-t the criterion t^iken for classi- 
I'vin^' such spiinas i-s the original condition of the ground. If it 
ap[)ears to have been a wet or springy spot, the term "spring" is 
applied regardless of the depth of excavation. If the surface ^^as 
dry in the first jdace, the term " well '• is applied no matter how 
shallow the depth at which the crater table was found. 

RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 

DUG WELLS. 

COXSTRUCTIOX. 

Dug wells are constructed by digging holes in tlie ground deep 
enough to extend below the water table. The excavation is gen- 
erally made 8 or 10 feet in diameter, and in it is built a lining of 
dry or inorttired masonry or brickv>ork, concrete, vitrified tile, or 
j>lanking. As the well is walled up the space outside the lining is 
filled. The filling should be of some porous material, such as gravel, 
in order to facilitate percolation into the well, but many well diggers 
pay little attention to this matter. Most dug wells when completed 
are 3 to 5 feet in diameter, though some are much larger, and their 
depth may be as much as 50 feet or more. The average depth of the 
707 dug wells tabulated in this report is 18.3 feet, and they contain 
on an average al>out 5 feet of water. 

LTFTIXG DEVICES. 

A number of different devices are in use for raising water from 
dug wells. All are types or modifications of a simple bucket for 
])ailing out water, the displacement pump, the impeller pump, or 
the siphon. 

Bculinf) d^vwes. — The most primitive method of lifting water is 
by bailing with a dipper in shallow wells or with a bucket hung from 
a rope in deeper wells. In some places the rope is replaced by a light 
pole with a snap ring at the end by which the bucket is held. These 
devices are not only inconvenient and laborious to use but are un- 
sanitary. The '' one-bucket rig " comprises in addition to the roj>e 
and bucket a gallows-like frame from which is himg a pulley to 
carry the bucket rope. The "two-bucket rig'' is similar except 
that it has a bucket at each end of the rope, thus eliminating tlie 
necessity of sending down the bucket before drawing water. 

In the " sweep rig '' the bucket is hung by a rope or slender pole 
from the small end of a sweep 15 to 10 feet long. The sweep is 
pi\ oted at a crotch in a convenient tree or over a pole set firmly in 
the ground and has at its butt a counterbalance weight. 



36 GROITKD WATER IF NOE WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

In the " wheel and axle rig " the rope from the bucket winds 
around a wheel 2 to 4 feet in diameter with a grooved face to keep 
the rope from slipping off. The wheel is carried on an axle 4 to 8 
inches in diameter suspended above the well. Wound around the 
axle is a second rope to which a heavy stone or block of iron is 
hung. The greater weight of the stone acting on the axle counter- 
balances the lesser weight of the bucket acting on the large wheel. 

In the " windlass rig " the rope from the bucket winds around a 
drum 5 or 6 inches in diameter to which a crank is attached. The 
windlass is set over the well, and on the drum are flanges to keep 
the rope from running off. Many are provided with a ratchet to 
prevent the bucket from falling back and with a brake to use in 
loAvering the bucket. In some the rope is replaced by a chain either 
of the ordinary sort or of flat links, by leather straps, or by flat 
straps of mild brass. 

The " counterbalance rig " is a modification of the windlass rig 
in which the rope instead of winding around a drum passes over a 
pullej^ carried on the crank axle. One end of the rope has a bucket 
and the other a weight that more than counterbalances the emptj^ 
bucket but is lighter than the full bucket. In some rigs a chain 
and suitably notched pullej^ are used instead of a rope and smooth 
pulley. 

The rigs described above, as they are generally installed, are 
open to objection on sanitary grounds. At far too many wells the 
open curbs and inward-sloping surrounding surface allow access 
of foreign matter to the v\^ater, and moreover there is danger of 
pollution from the handling of the bucket and rope. All the devices 
are much safer when the curbs are tight and hinged covers are pro- 
vided which may be closed except while water is actually being- 
drawn. It is also advisable to bank up earth around the well curb 
or to build a concrete apron around it so that surface water and 
drippings will flow away. With some of the rigs it is possible to 
avoid transfer of filth from the hands by using an automatic filling 
and dumping bucket, an ordinary bucket equipped with a pair of 
metal prongs opposite each other on the rim. For a few feet next 
to the bucket the rope is replaced by a flat chain which, as it rolls 
onto the drum, turns the bucket so that one or the other of the 
metal prongs engages a cross rod inside the curb. By further wind- 
ing the bucket is tipped and emptied into a spout. With this 
arrangement it is unnecessary either to handle the bucket or to open 
the curb, which may, therefore, be made tight against foreign matter. 

Puoiips. — Among the principal classes of pumps are displacement 
pumps, bucket pumps, impeller pumps, and air lifts. Displacement 
pumps are of two principal sorts — pitcher pumps and deep-well 



RECOVErvY OF GROUND WATKK, 



37 



j>uinp>'. Both consist of a cylinder in Avliich a piston moATs. At 
tlie bottom of the cylinder and in the piston arc valves that open 
upward. AVhen the piston is raised by means of the handle and 
connecting rod, Avater rushes into the cylinder from below, and when 
the piston is depressed the water rises throuoh its valves. Repe- 
tition of the movement raises the water in successive small masses. 
In a j^itcher pump the workino- cylinder is at the top of the pipe, 
above the ground, and the part of the pump above the piston is 
sliaped to a spout. In a deep-well pump the working cylinder is at 
some depth and is connected with the delivery pipe by a closed 
cii.]). On top of the delivery pipe is a standard to carry the pump 
handle, from which a long rod runs down through the delivery 
j>ipe to the piston. Some deep-well pumps are double acting— that 
is, they have extra valves so arranged that water is raised on both 




Pitcher pump 
in kitchen 




^^, 



Deep well pump with 
cylinder in cellar 



Figure 



-Diagram showina; two types of iiistallatiou of " house pumps."' 



the rising and the descending piston stroke instead of only on the 
rising stroke. Deep-well pumps are superior to pitcher pumps in 
that they are less liable to freezing, need little or no priming, and 
can be used in deeper wells by lowering the working cylinder. 

A displacement pump may be installed in the house or barn at 
some distance from the well, as shown in figure 7. The suction lift 
(vertical distance between cylinder and water level) should not be 
more than 20 to 25 feet for moderate horizontal distances and stiU 
less if the pump is far from the well. In this report installations of 
this kind are called "house pumps." Some have a pitcher pump on 
the first floor and others have a deep-well pump with the working 
cylinder in the cellar and the pump-handle standard on the first 
or even the second floor. 

Chain pumps are used in many w^ells in Connecticut and are of two 
types — rubber-bucket pumps and metal-bucket pumps. A rubber- 
bucket ]:)unip is a displacement pump of special type and consists of a 
long tube through which is passed an endless chain that has thick 
ridjbcr washers on special links at intervals of G to 10 feet. xVt the 



38 



GFvOL']SrD WATEE 11^ ISTOEWALK A^B OTHER x\EEAS, CONE". 




the 
up 

and 



In a few places where garden truck is 
crops, especially if forced for early mar 



top the tube is fastened 
to a curbing, across the 
top of which is an axle 
with crank a n d 
sprocket wheel to take 
the chain. When the 
crank is turned 
chain is drawn 
through the tube 
the rubbers act as pis- 
tons and raise water 
. which is discharged 
I through an opening in 
I the tube near the top. 
g A metal -bucket 
y pump, though similar 
i in external appearance, 
I is quite different in 
a principle. A chain, 
" made of alternating 
I plain flat links and 
g special fiat links that 
ft are fitted with small 
ofl metal buckets, passes 
g over a sprocket wheel 

1 turned by a crank. 

2 The buckets are about 
ba 2 inches square and i 

3 inches deep, and each 
jj- has a lip so con- 
a structed that as it 
§ passes over the wheel 
"^ it empties the water it 

has carried up from 
below into a hopper 
connected to a spout. 
All these pumps are 
sanitary if the curb- 
ing and platform are 
tight enough to prevent 
waste water, surface 
drainage, and solid for- 
eign matter from enter- 
ing the well, 
raised the high value of the 
kets, makes the pumping of 



RECOVEPvY OF GROUND WATER.' 39 

water for irrigation ])r()(i(al)1i\ '\\\'lls oi' lariir truniu'ti'r arc <lug, 
l)Ut as the saiiitar\ (jiiality ol' (lio water is unimportant tlicy need 
not be covered nor vci y carefully walled np. ^^']lere the water table 
is Injrh and the yield of the well large, as in parts of the plains 
underlain by stratitied drift, centrifugal pumps di'iven Ity gasoline 
engines have been founci satisfactory. Inside a closed casing is a 
fajilike wheel, whieh is rotated at high speed and gives the water 
enough centrifugal inertia to force it out through a tangential dis- 
chai'ge pipe. A partial Aacuum is prwUiccd at the center ol' the 
pump, and water rushes in through a central side opening. These 
pumps have to be primed, but they are little troubled l)y grit in the 
Avater. If properly designed and of the right size for the task as- 
signed them they are very efficient. 

S'tphon and gravity rigs. — Dug wells situated higher tl\an the 
points at which the water is to be used laay be developed by means of 
si]5l)On pipe line provided the Avater level is not more than 25 feet 
beloAv the ground and is above the point of delivei'y. Figure 8 
illustrates such an installation. In some wells, Avliere the water level 
is near the surface and where no hill intervenes bet\veen the Avell 
and the point of delivery, and in many springs a diject gravity system 
mav be used, obviating the necessity" of occasionally priming the 
siphon. The gravity and siphon rigs are sanitary provided the sur- 
roundings of the well or spring arc clean. If the pipe is of load care 
should be taken not to use any water tliat lias stood a long time in 
the pipe. In some places where the fall from the well is not enough 
to carry the water to the first floor of the house the water is alloAved 
to run continuously into a cistern or tank in the cellar, from which it 
is j^umped by hand. The overflow of siphon ar.d gravity systems is 
in many places used to supply watering troughs. 

Rams. — Springs of large yield Avhich lie lower than the point of 
utilization may be developed by means of hydraulic rams. A few 
exceptional wells also may be developed in this way. The hydraulic 
ram is a mechanical device which uses the momentum of a relatively 
largo vohuno of water falling a short distance to raise a small volume 
of V ater to a relatively great height. Theoretically 10() gallons fall- 
ing 10 feet would have enough energy to raise 10 gallons 100 feet or 
1 gallon 1,000 feet, and other quantities and lieights in proportion. 
However, on account of leakage through the valves and elasticity and 
friction in the pipes this condition is not realized. A-, cording to 
tables given by Bj(")rling,' when the ratio of lift to fall is 4: to 1 the 
ram will lift 86 per cent of the theoretical amount; with a ratio of 
10 to 1.. oo per cent; and with a ratio of 25 to 1, only 2 per cent. 
Bj()rling says further that the length of the drive pipe (from spring 
to ram) should be 5 to 10 times as great as the fall. The delivery 

' Bjorling, V. R., Water or hydrauUc motors, pp. COl-STl, 1S04. 



GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 



pipe (from the ram to the storage tank) should have an area of cross 
section equal to one-fourth or one-third that of the supply or drive 
pipe (from the spring or well to the ram). The rapidity of the 
beat should be as great as is compatible with perfect and complete 
action of the valves and in most rams may be regulated by adjusting 
springs or weights on the main valve. The noise made by rams is 
considerable and is transmitted along iron pipes but may be reduced 
by the use of lead pipe or of a section of rubber hose. 

Many people have been disappointed in trying to use rams because 
they did not realize their limitations. Rams must of necessity waste 
a large portion of the water. Before installing a ram careful meas- 
urements should be made of 
the flow of the well or spring 
during its lowest season, the 
amount of fall available, the 
amount of lift desired, and the 
horizontal distance from well 
to ram. If these data are sup- 
plied to the, makers they will 
be able to recommend the best 
model and size of ram. With 
proper conditions a suitable 
ram correctly installed will 
furnish a reliable, inexpensive, 
and permanent supply. It is 
customary to have the ram de- 
liver the water to a tank or 
reservoir in an elevated posi- 
sition from which it is dis- 
tributed by gravity. 

Windmills and air-'pressure 
tanks. — A popular method of suppljdng water is by the use of a 
windmill, pumj^ing jack, pump, and reservoir. Another equipment 
used by many people is the air-pressure system. A pump driven by 
a gasoline engine or electric motor pumps water into a closed steel 
tank containing air. As the water comes in it compresses the air 
and gives pressure sufficient to drive the water through the piping 
in the house. The pump is fitted with a snifting valve, which takes 
in a little air with each stroke to replace that dissolved by the water. 
Some of the tanks are equipped Avith telltales which give a signal 
or automatically start the motor when the water level in the tank is 
reduced below a set point It is the usual practice to put the tank in 
the cellar, but some are in specially constructed pits outside. 

Tanks and reservoirs built in the open are apt to allow the Avater 
to become disagreeably warm in summer and to give trouble by freez- 




FlGUUE 9.- 
the Avell 



TIME ELAPSED^ IN MINUTES 

—Graph showing the recovery of 
of J. S. Dewey after pumping. 



RECOVKRY OF CKOUXl^ WATHR. 



41 



ing in ^viIltor. Tho liciitiiig in ^iinuncr is an ;ulviinta<rt' in irrifjation, 
as the Avarni Avater «»i\ cs Ic^ss shock to (ho ])hints on wliich it is put. 



YIELDS OF I>1(! AVHLLS. 

One of tlic most important qnestions rehitive to the recovery of 
ground Avater is the anionnt avaihible. A study Avas made of the dug 
well of Mr. J. S. Dewey (Xo. 3. PL IV) near Granby station in East 
(uaiiby. The Avell Avas dug in stratified drift to a depth of 24 feet, 
i-N 4 feet in diameter, and rarely has more tlian 5 feet of water. At 
the time the well Avas visited it had been pumped continuously for 
five hours. Mr. Dewey very kindly stopped pumping in order that the 
recovery of the Avell might be observed. At intervals of about 10 
minutes measurements were made of the depth from a datum point 
on the curb to tlie Avater surface. The results are given in the fol- 
loAving table : 

R'isc of Icccl in J. S. J^cirey'-s well. 



Time 
elapsed. 


Length 

of 
interval. 


Deptli to 
water sur- 
face from 
datum. 


Total rise 
of water 
surface. 


Rise 

during 

intervaJ. 


MinuUs. 


Minutes. 


Fat. 


Feet. 


Feet. 








2(5.47 


_ 





10 


10 


25. 95 


. 52 


.52 


22 


12 


25.53 


.94 


.42 


33 


11 


25.14 


1.33 


.39 


41 


8 


24.94 


1.53 


.20 


50 


9 


24. 77 


1.70 


.17 


t.o 


10 


24. 62 


1.85 


.15 


71 


11 


24.49 


1.98 


.13 


80 


9 


24.40 


2.07 


. 09 


<tl 


11 


24.30 


2.17 


.10 


100 


9 


24.23 


2.24 


.07 



These data are also graphical!}' expressed in figure 9. As the well 
has a diameter of 4 feet, the area of the cross section is 12.6 square 
feet, and a rise of 0.01 foot is equivalent to an infloAv of 0.126 cubic 
foot, or (1.04 gallon. The rate of infloAv in any interval may be ex- 
pressed by the e({uation 

RXOM 
t 

Avhere /=rate of inflow in gallons per minute, A^=the rise of Avater 
level in hundredths of a foot, and ^=thc length of the interval in 
ininutes. 

If the curA'e in figure 9 is extended upward and to the right, it 
Aviil become asymptotic to a horizontal line representing a total rise 
of about 2.5 feet. It is reasonable to assume that when pumping Avas 
stopped the Avater had been depressed about 2.5 feet below its original 
level. Then the original IcA-el must have been 2.5 feet above the 
26.47-foot level, or about 24 feet below the datum. The drawdoAvn 



42 GROUlSrD WATER IX IsOEWALK AjSTD OTHER AREAS, CONN. 



of the water level at any moment may be obtained by subtracting 
24 feet from tlie distance from the datum to the water level at that 

moment, as was done for the first column 
of the following table. The second col- 
umn gives the total inflow in gallons for 
each of the 10 intervals ( = /?X0.9-l), 
and the third column gives the rates of 
inflow as obtained by the formula 
above. In the fourth column is given 
the mean drawdown for each interval, 
found hj averaging the drawdown at 
the start with the drawdown at the end. 
In the fifth column are given the ratios 
of the rate of inflow to the rate of 
drawclo^vn. The average of these is 
2.11, which means that reducing the 
level in the well by 1 foot increases the 
rate of inflow by 2.11 gallons a minute. 
The values in the third and fourth col- 
umns are plotted against one another 
in figure 10. The rather uniform slope 
of the line joining these points is ex- 
pressive of the relative uniformity of the values found in the fifth 
column. 

Relation of rate of infioiv to draiocloiDn. 



4 




1 


/ 




1 




111 
1- 




/ 




D 




/ 




5 




I ° 




£3 

a. 

tn 

z 




1 






1 








J 




_j 








< 

















z^ 








J 














i 


1 






J 


I 






z 


/ 









/ 







DRAWDOWN, IN FEET 

FicuKK 10. — Graph showing the 
relation of inflow to drawdown 
in tho well of J. S. Dewey. 











Inflow in 




Total 


Rate of 


Mean 


gallons 


Drawdown. 


inflow 
for 


inflow 
for 


drawdown 
for 


per niinute 
for each 




interval. 


interval. 


interval. 


foot of 
drawdo^vn. 






Gallons per 






Teet. 


Gallons. 


minute. 


Feet. 




2.47 
1.9-5 




48. 80 








4.88 


2.2i 


2.21 


1.53 


39.48 


3.29 


1.74 


1.89 


1.14 


36.66 


3.33 


1.34 


2.49 


.94 


18.80 


2.35 


1.04 


2.26 


.77 


15.98 


1.78 


.86 


2.07 


.62 


14.10 


1.41 


.70 


2.01 


.49 


12.22 


1.11 


.56 


1.98 


.40 


8.46 


.94 


.45 


2.09 


.30 


9.40 


.85 


.35 


2.43 


.23 


6.58 


.73 


.27 


2.70 


C2.21 



o Average. 



By operating this pump so as to keep the water level down about 
l.To feet below the level it holds normally when not being pumped 
an inflow of about 3.5 gallons a minute is obtained. This well could 
be made to yield at least 210 gallons an hour or about 5,000 gallons 
a day. 



iiEcovEnv <ii' (iiioL'M) WATi:r. 43 

vSiiuilar tests made on a well dug in till indicate a oapacit}- of only 
320 gallons a day, and other tests on a well blasted into Ti-iassic sand- 
stone and drawing- its water froiu fissures in the rock showed a eapa- 
city of 210 gallons a day.^ 

INFILTHATION GALLEBIES. 

An inliltration gallery is a niodlfieation of a dug waW and dei'ives 
its watei- in the same way. Turneaure and Russell - say of them: 

WlitMH' trroimil water can be rojiclicd at: inoderatf depMis it is soinct ir.n's in- 
1<^rcepted by ijcallerios constructed across the line of flow. * * * In loi'iii 
a jialiery may consist of an open ditch which leads tlie water away, or 11 may 
))e a closed conduit of masonry, wood, iron, or vitrified clay pipe, provider I 
\Aiili numerousf sn\all openings to allow the entrance of water. * * * Clal- 
lerles are usually constructed in an open trench. They ai*e generally arran.ged 
to lead the water to the p\imp well, and may be provided with gates sw tliat 
the water may be shut off from various section.*. The cost of galleries is aliout 
tlie same as tliat of sewers in similar ground. It rapidly increases with depth, 
lull up to 20 or 25 feet it is sufficiently low so that the construction of galleries 
can often be advantageously undertaken. A gallery not only intercepts the 
\\-ater more completely than wells, but it replaces the suction pipe, it is more 
durable than either pipe or wells, and all trouble from inmiping air isf a"\(iided. 

Filter galleries maj' be so constructed that surface water is flooded 
over the ground around and above them and is collected in them 
after percolating through the soil. This will remove most of the 
suspended matter that makes the raw water unsightly', but unless 
fret|uent bacteriologic examinations are made it should not be 
trusted to completely eliminate the germs of disease. Chlorination 
or similar treatment might well be added as part of the process. 

DRIVEN WELLS. 

Driven wells are made by driving pipes into the ground with a 
niau.l or machine resembling a pile driver. The pipe is made up of 
enough sections to reach the ground-water level, and may have 
either an open end or a closed end. 

In closed-end driven wells a drive point slighth' larger than the 
pipe is used to penetrate the ground. Above the point is a perfo- 
rated section through which the water enters. As the pipe is driven 
down sections are screwed on to lengthen it. The pipes are in g-en- 
eral from three-fourths of an inch to 3 inches in diameter, and the 
screens from 2 to 4 feet long. 

Open-end driven wells are made by driving a plain pipe which 
may or may not have a heavy cutting shoe attaciied to it. The 
material inside tlie pipe is removed by means of a sand pump or 



1 ralmer, H. S., Ground water of the Soutliinston-Gi-anby area, fonn. : T'. S. Geo!. 
Siu-vcy Water-Supply Paper 466 (in press). 

-Turneaure, F. E., and Tai-^sell, n. L., Public water .'jupplies, pp. .sl8-.12o, ifiOO. 



44 GROUND WATEE IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

water jet. In the jetting method Avater is. forced down a small pipe 
inside the drive pipe, and as it rises it carries up the sand, silt, and 
smaller pebbles. The pipe is perforated either before driving or by 
special tools operated from the inside after driving. In the East 
rather small pipes are used, but in the West a special casing 10 or 12 
inches in diameter made of sheet metal is often provided. 

Several kinds of pumps are used with driven wells. With domestic 
driven v\^ells of small bore the usual practice is to screw a pitcher 
pump to the top of the pipe. In some of the larger driven wells a 
deep-well pump is put down inside the drivepipe, and in others a 
specially constructed section of the drivepipe acts as the cylinder. 
A centrifugal pump is used in some of the western driven wells of 
very large size and heavy yield. 

Driven wells are suited to loose sands and gravels, in which caving 
would make trouble in digging wells. They are inexpensive and have 
the advantage that if they are unsuccessful the pipe may be withdrawn 
and used again in another place. One disadvantage of the smaller 
ones is the proneness of the screen to become clogged hj an incrusta- 
tion of mineral matter or by silt, and another is that grit may be 
drawn up with the water and score the working parts of the pump so 
that it works poorly. Wells of the large type are the best adapted 
for obtaining large supplies from the stratified drift or other sandy 
or gravelly deposits. They should be more largely used instead of 
the small types of driven wells where large supplies are required. 
Driven wells are not suited to till because the presence of boulders 
makes driving difficult or impossible and because the yield of the 
till is insufficient for a satisfactory supply. 

DRILLED WELLS. 

Drilled wells are in general deeper than dug or driven wells and in 
general obtain their water from cracks or fissures in bedrock. They 
are made either by a percussion machine (churn drill) or by an 
abrasion machine (core drill). A percussion drill has a long steel 
bar with a hardened and sharpened bit at the lower end which is 
worked up and down by an engine and pounds its way through the 
rock. At intervals the drill is withdrawn for sharpening and the 
debris is removed by means of a sand pump. Abrasion machines are 
built to revolve a hollow steel cylinder shod with diamonds or with 
chilled steel shot, which cut a circular channel surrounding a core. 
At intervals the drill is removed and the core broken into sections 
and extracted. The portion of the hole above bedrock is cased with 
steel or wrought-iron pipe, which should be driven into the bedrock 
and firmly set to prevent the entrance of surface water. Drilled wells 
in Connecticut ranffe from 4 to 12 inches in diameter, but most of 



RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 



45 



tlioni are G inches in dianiotor. The avcnioe depth of the 129 drilled 
wells tahi]late<l in this report is '213 feet. 

AA'here only modeiale amounts of water are needed a pump of the 
dee))- well type o})eratetl by hand or by power is hnnji' in the well. 
In some avcIIs ^^here large amomits of water are to bo raised fiom 
a great depth use is made of an " air lift."' Compressed air is forced 
<!own an air pipe and delivered near the bottom of a discharge i)ipe, 
:ind then expands and rises, bringing Avater with it. The delivery 
pipe may be hnng inside the well witli the air pipe alongside it 
{</. fig. 11), or the rock wall and casing may act as the delivery 
j)i]>e (7>. fig. 11). It is essential that the length of the submerged 
]>ortion of the air pipe should be from 30 to 70 per cent of the dis- 
tance from the bottom of 
the air pipe to the point of 
discharge. In shallower 
wells the percentage of sub- 
mergence must be greater 
than in deeper wells. The 
pressure used ranges from 
■20 to 100 pounds to the 
s<|uare inch and is often cal- 
culated at one-fifth to one- 
quarter of a pound for each 
foot of lift. The two great 
advantages of the air lift 
are that it has no moving- 
parts in the well Avhere 
they would be inaccessible 
in case of wear by grit in 
the water, and that it ma}^ 
be controlled and operated 
from a distant air-compressing station. The efficiency, hoAvever, is 
not very high in many installations. 

The success or faihire of drilled wells can not be predicted because 
of the irregular distribution of the water-bearing fissures, but the 
statistical studies of Gregory and Ellis show that drilling at any 
jKiint will probably procure a satisfactory supply. Among the '237 
wells drilled in crystalline rocks in Connecticut studied by Ellis,^ 
only 3 Avells, or 1.24 per cent, are recorded as obtaining no Avater. A 
supply of 2 gallons a minute is considered abundant for domestic 
needs, though insufficient for industrial purposes. Among the 134 
wells drilled in crystalline rock whose yield Ellis ascertained "only 




Figure 11. — Diagram showinj; two types of 

niv lifts. 



^ Gregory. 11. E., aiul Ellis, E. E., Unclergrouncl-water resources of Connecticut : 
U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 32.3, p. 91, 1909. 



46 GROUND WATEE UST ]Sr-GilWALK AXD OTHER AREAS, COjSrF. 

17, about 12.45 ]>er cent, furnish less than 2 gallons a minute." It is 
probably a conservative estimate to state tliat not less than 90 iper 
cejat of the wells sunk in the crystalline rocks have given supplies 
sufficient for the use required. Wells may be unsuccessful not only 
as regards quantity but also as regards the quality of the supply. 
Along the shore in the Norwalk area are many drilled wells that 
have bracldsh water, which enters through fissm-es that open also to 
the salt water of the Sound. (See p. 69.) 

Althoug^h wells are reported by Ellis that obtain water at all 
depths from 15 to 800 feet, the largest percentage of failures is in 
wells over 400 feet deep. TMs is due to the less number of joints 
and their greater tightness in depth. J'rom a consideration of the 
gieater cost per foot of drilling and of the lesser probabilities of suc- 
cess it is concluded that if a well has penetrated 250 feet of rock 
without success the best policy is to abandon it and sink in another 
locality. 

Gregory,^ in v/riting of the wells drilled in sandstone, says that 
"of the 194 wells recorded, only 11, or 5.6 per cent, failed to obtain 
2 gallons a minute, the minimum amount desired for domestic pur- 
poses." The average yield of 112 of these wells is "27| gallons a 
minute, the largest being 350 gallons and the smallest two-tliirds 
gallon." As with wells drilled in crystalline rocks, so with wells in 
sandstone, it is considered " good practice to abandon a well that has 
not obtained satisfactory supplies at 250 to 300 feet." 

SPRINGS. 

In developing a spring as a source of water supply it is advisable 
to make some sort of a substantial collecting* basin. No materials 
which may rot should be used. Eotting works in two ways to injure 
a vv^ater supply; it adds objectionable decayed organic matter and it 
weakens the walls and allows the entrance of surface water "which 
may be polluted. 2*fo spring slionld be so arranged that water is 
dipped from it, as this process may readily transfer pollution from 
tliQ hands. The reserA^^oir should be covered and a pipe provided to 
carry off the flow, as this method not only prevents pollution from 
the hands, but also prevents eontamination by animals around the 
spring. If a spring is used for watering stock a pipe and trough 
should be provided. 

In order that the water may enter readily the reservoir should be 
thoroughly jierforated or should be open at the bottom, but it should 
have stout, water-tight walls extending a foot or two above and be- 
low the surface to prevent entrance of surface wash. Where it is 
desired to use the full flow of the spring, the shape of th.e springy 

1 Op. cit., p. 130. 



GKOl^XD WATEi; I'Oll ri'BLK' SUPPLY. 47 

aroii ilet<^riiiine.s tho. shape of the iv>erv<)ii-, ^vhich will alloAV of 
nearly coiuplote i-eoovery. If only :i iiKHlerate supply is needed tho 
ivsei'voir may i>e of an\ convenient shai>e. Small spring's may be 
ileveloped by settijig a length of large piix? of concrete, iron, or 
viti-itied tile vertically in the ground. Such tile is superior to the 
\Yooden cask or box used at many springs because of its greater 
diiiability and lesser expense in the long run. Whatever the type 
of the reservoir it should be provided with a cover or roof that 
will eti"eetually keep out leaves, sticks, wind-blown dirt, and small 
animals. 

GROUND WATER FOR PUBLIC SUPPLY. 

INTKXJDUCTIOlSr. 

The use of ground water for public supplies is a comparatively 
recent development in :N'ew England. Though most of the people 
a century ago used ground water, wbicli was obtained on a small 
scale from dug wells and springs, tlie growing need for large sup- 
plies was met in most places by surface water. Since 1880. hovrever. 
;\ number of waterworks which use ground water have been con- 
structed in jS"ew England, and doubtless more will be built in the 
future. 

The chief advantages of a properly constructed and properly lo- 
cated ground- water supply over a surface supply are ujiiformly low 
and agreeable temperature, sanitary safety, and absence of dis- 
agreeable odor, color, or taste. The chief disadvantages are that 
the water may be more highly mineralized, the amount available 
may be inadequate, and the cost of construction and operation 
may be greater. The choice of a source of supply, the method of 
development, and adequate provision for extension of the system 
with increased consumption are matters in which communities should 
procure expert advice. 

]^Iost ground-water systems for public supply comprise one or 
more batteries of driven Avells connected by suction mains to pump- 
ing plants which discharge into small reservoirs with distributing 
pipes. A few plants use dug wells or infiltration galleries. The 
dri\-en wells are similar to those described on pages 543-54-1:, except 
that they are in general of greater diameter than domestic wells. 
They are so located that they will draw from as great an area as possi- 
ble with the least amount of piping, but with consideration for the 
difference in the abundance of the supply throughout the field. If 
tlie direction of the underflov,- is kiiown. tlie lines of Avells are placed 
across it m order that tlie maximum yield may be intercepted witli- 
<»ut interference among the wells. 



48 GROUND WATER IN NORV/ALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

In selecting- sites for wells it is essential to consider the character 
of the water-bearing formation. As a rule, only small supplies can 
be obtained from the till or from the underlying bedrock, but large 
supplies, such as are required for public waterworks, can be de- 
veloped in man}^ places from the extensive deposits of sand and 
gravel that constitute the stratified drift. These deposits and the 
surface features by which they can be recognized are elsewhere de- 
scribed. (See pp. 22-24.) The distribution of the stratified drift 
in the towns discussed in this report is shown on the maps (Pis. Ill, 
lY, andVI). 

A number of test wells should be sunk and should be vigorously 
pumped in order to determine the water-bearing caiiacity of the 
formation at different points and depths. The pumping should be 
as heavy and as long continued as possible, in order that any de- 
terioration in the quality or abundance of the water may be detected 
and so that as strong jdelds as possible may be developed. Analyses 
of samples collected at intervals and measurements of the yield 
should be made. The static level in open wells near the test wells 
should be observed before, during, and after pumping to ascertain 
the amount and extent of the drawdown of the water table and its 
rate of recovery. 

In order to get successful wells with large yields in the stratified 
drift, it is necessary to clean the wells out thoroughly and thus to get 
rid of the fine sand and to develop around the intake of the well a 
reservoir of clean gravel. The wells should be not less than 8 
inches in diameter and should have casings extensively perforated 
with circular holes one-fourth inch or more in diameter or slits not 
loss than one-fourth inch wide. The wells should be pumped vig- 
orously for a long time, preferably with an air lift, but if an air lift 
is not available, by means of a centrifugal pump, in order to get out 
the sand. It is desirable in developing a well to pump it at its 
maximum capacity or at least considerably harder than it will be 
pumped when it is put into service. If this is done there will 
generally be not much trouble with sand when the wells are in use 
and are pumped at the more moderate rate. 

The methods of developing wells in incoherent and poorly as- 
sorted sand and gravel deposits, such as the stratified drift, are much 
better understood in the western part of the United States, where 
hundreds of thousands of acres are being irrigated with water 
pumped from such wells, than in the East, where there has in general 
been less need for large underground supplies. If the methods 
described above, which are extensively used with success in the West, 
were applied to the stratified drift, wells yielding several hundred 



GROUND WATER FOlI PUHLIC SlUTLY. 49 

iralloiis a minute coiild no (1()ul)t be obtained in many places. If 
waterworks can be supplied by one well ol" laiire yield or even by ii 
few such wells the cost of maintainino; the wcdls and the eost of puiu])- 
ing will be le?-s than where there is a large battery of small wells hav- 
ing casings with small perforations or screens of fine mesh which 
generall}' become partly clogged and do not admit Avater freely. 

The source of the water may be rainfall on the adjacent region or 
underflow from some body of water, or in part from both. Water 
from a surface body is greatly improved in quality by passing slowly 
through a mass of soil. Water derived chiefly from absorption of 
rainfall by the soil has a temperature of 48° to 52° F., which is the 
general temperature of the earth below the depth of diurnal varia- 
tion. Surface waters are much warmer in summer and colder in 
winter, so that a wide range of temperature in the clriven-well water 
would indicate surface origin. 

The experience at many plants at which ground water is pumped 
into open reservoirs is that there is likely to be a heavy growth of 
algae, even more than where surface waters are thus stored. Eoofing 
the reservoirs is found to reduce or eliminate the algal growths, for 
they thrive only in abundant light. Roofed reservoirs also keep the 
temperature more uniform. As roofing is expensive, however, the 
usual practice is to have much smaller storage capacity and to de- 
pend on the pumps to keep pace with the fluctuations in consump- 
tion. 

An excessive amount of carbon dioxide, iron, or manganese in 
some supplies has been troublesome. Carbon dioxide has made a 
good deal of trouble at the plant at Lowell, Mass., and experiments 
were mnxle in 1914 to find a remedy.^ It was found that spraying 
the water under low pressure from small nozzles would aerate it and 
thus eliminate the gas. By another set of experiments, conducted 
at the same time, for the removal of iron and manganese which had 
increased in amount as the draft on the supply increased, the con- 
clusion was reached that " the iron and manganese can be successfully 
and economically removed by limited aeration, passage through a 
coke prefilter not less than 8 feet in depth, operated as a contact bed 
at a rate of 76,500,000 gallons per acre daily, and subsequent filtration 
through sand at a rate of a million gallons per acre daiW." The rate 
of filtration and the details of construction of the filter beds would 
be somewhat different with waters of different content of carbon 
dioxide, iron, and manganese. 

^ BailK)Ui'. F. IT.. IinpvoA-cniPnt of the water supplj- of the city of Lowell, a special 
report to the iniinicipal council, 1014. 

154444 "'— 20 4 



50 GROUND WATER IN NORWiVLK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

TYPICAL PLANTS. 
GREENFIELD, MASS. 

At Greenfield, Mass., o-round- water supply supplements the surface 
suppty.^ Near Green River a Avell 40 feet in diameter and 30 feet 
deep was made by sinking a cylindrical concrete caisson. The water 
level is only 5 feet below the surface, and the earth is loose and 
pervious. Pieces of 2^-inch pipe were placed in the concrete walls 
during construction in order to permit ready entrance of water. The 
well is covered by a domed concrete roof. At one time 2,000,000 
gallons of water were pumped daily for about two weeks, though 
the pumps are generally run only part time and draw only about 
1,200,000 gallons daily. 

HYDE TARK, MASS. 

The Hyde Park Water Co. formerly had a ground-water supply. 
The supply was drawn from 150 driven wells connected to a central 
eollectiiig chamber, and the water was pumped through the mains to 
a reserA'oir and stand]3ipe with a combined storage capacit}' of 
2,000,000 gallons. The pumps had a capacity of 2,500,000 gallons 
a day, and there were 32.4 miles of mains, 1,806 .service taps, and 178 
fii'e hydrants.- The original equipment, installed in 1885, com- 
prised 64 driven wells 2 inches in diameter, from 25 to 38 feet 
deep.'^ The wells were pumped in 1886 at the rate of 1,000,000 gal- 
lons a day for seven days. The water level was dei3ressed froin 8 to 
15 feet below the surface — ^tliat is, it was lowered T feet — but recov- 
ered overnight. The pumps were unable to lower the level below 15 
feet. 

LOWELL, MASS. 

Lowell's first waterworks, built in 1870, comprised a filter gallery 
1,300 feet long parallel to and 100 feet distant from Merriniaclv 
River, from which water was pumped to a distributing reservoir. 
The supply was about 900,000 gallons a day (1875), and as the daily 
consumption became greater a supplementary supply was puuiped 
direct from the river and passed through a sand filter. Epidemics 
of typhoid fever in 1890 and 1891 necessitated a better supply. 
Test wells were driven at different places near the city, and finally 
a contract was awarded to the Cook Well Co. for a 5.000.000-gallon 
supph' to be obtained by driven wells along River Meadow Brook. 
Fortj^-five 6-inch wells of the open-end type. -17 to 67 feet deep, were 



^ Meri-iU, G. F., Tho Greenfield waterworks: New Englancl Waterworks Assoc. Jeur., 
Juno, 1915, pp. 149-ir,0. 

2 Baker, W. N., Manual of American waterworks, 1S97. 

2 Discussion, in New England Waterworks Assoc. .Jonr., Sept., 1886. 



GROUND WATER FOR PUBLIC SUPPLY. 51 

Slink by saiul pniups. ami at first yielded 7,000,000 o-allons a day, 
I. lit soon fell off to only 2,000,000 oallons. Fifteen 4-inch wells 
were added, and increased the yield to ;},000,()()() cjallons, Imt the con- 
tractors considered it impossible to get 5,000,000 «2:allons, and aban- 
doned the contract. In 189+ the Hydraulic Construction Co., of New 
Vork, sunk by the jettin<!: method 120 open-end 2-inch wells a mile 
upstream from the old wells. As the total yield from both well fields 
v,-as less than 5,0(X),000 ^-Jilloiis a day, it was necessary to pump i-iver 
wator to supply the T.OOO.OOO-g'allon daily consumption in IHiK). In 
July. 1895, B. F. Smith & Co. commenced driving wells in a locality 
on Merrimack Eiver. and that company made 169 successful wells 27 
to 40 feet deep, situated 150 to 350 feet from the river. The daily 
yield from this area, known as the Lower Boulevard Field, was about 
4.000.000 gallons. 

Excessive corrosion of lead pipes in the city developed in 1800 
and the State board of health attributed it to the high content 
of carbon dioxide in the water from the Cook wells. Consequently 
tlie Cook Held and the field a mile upstream on River Meadow 
Brook were abandoned in 1900. Fifty-two wells driven in 1900 and 
125 driven in 1901 supply the Upper Boulevard station. The system 
was adequate for the demand in 1902 and 1903, but the supply began 
to decrease, and from 1904 to 1911 it was found necessary to use 
the Cook wells. A deterioration in quality, due to overdraft, was 
coincident ^^ith the decrease in supply. In 1911 there were added 
118 new wells in the Boulevard field, so that there were then 450 
wells available in this area, allowing for a few that had been aban- 
doned. The addition of these wells counteracted the overdraft and 
for several years the supply was satisfactory. 

The wells that have been sunk since 1900 are of the closed-end 
type. They are of 2}-inch extra-heavy iron pipe with a bottom sec- 
tion 38 inches long, in which are bored 180 half -inch holes. A heavy 
brass wire wound spirally around the pipe separates it from a brass 
screen with vertical slots, 20 to the inch horizontally and 6 to the 
inch vertically. The bottom is screwed into a cast-iron driving 
])oint 4 1 inches in diameter that protects the strainer from abrasion. 
The wells are driven with a heavy drop hammer. As the forma- 
tion into which the. wells are driven is of fine grain, the strainers 
have to be cleaned at intervals. Each casing is ca2)ped at the sur- 
face, and a connection with the suction main is made l)elow the caj) 
through a T. In general, the wells are staggered 12 feet apart oi^ 
alternate sides of the suction main and 4 feet distant from it. 

I4iat the water comes in large part from the river is shown by 
the seasonal range of the temperature from 45° to 65° F.. which is 
much more pronounced than that of true ground water. The de- 



62 GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

terioration upon overdraft is presninabl^y due to the fact that the 
water is then retained a shorter time in the earth and consequently 
loses less of its impurities.^ 

XEAVRURYPORT, MASS. 

At Newburyport, Mass., a flat gravelly or sanely stretch, which 
looked rather promising as a source of water supply, yielded little 
Avater when test wells were sunk. As there was urgent need of a 
water supply a plan was worked out b}^ which water from an impui-e 
source was pumped onto the plain and was recovered by driven wells 
after having percolated some distance. The quality of the water is 
stated to have been greatly impro^s^ed by this filtration process.^ 

NEWTON, MASS. 

A filter basin 1,575 feet long by 10 to 88 feet wide at Newton, 
Mass., lies parallel to Charles Eiver and intercepts the underflow to 
the river. This amounts to an excavation in the bottom of which 
are driven wells that collect the water. The system also includes a 
number of driven wells on the other side of the river.^ 

PLAINVILLE, CONN. 

In 1909 the Plainville Water Co. decided to install a ground-water 
supply for use in summer because of the annoying algal growths 
in the surface supply then used. Test wells on a site near Quinnipiac 
Eiver showed an underflow toward the river. Thirty driven wells, 
each 3 inches in diameter, were put down in two rows of 15 wells 
each at right angles to the direction of underflow. The depths range 
from 25 to 30 feet. Tests indicated a capacity of 40 gallons a 
minute for each well. The pump has a capacity of 500 gallons a 
minute, and if operated 10 or 12 hours a day it provides sufficient 
water. Despite the heavy draft on the ground water there has been 
no permanent reduction of the supply, and though the Avater level is 
depressed by the day's pumpage it recovers overnight. The water 
is excellent, though a little harder than the reservoir water.* 

QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 
ANALYSES AND ASSAYS. 

The chemical studies made in connection with this report com- 
prise 3 complete analj'ses, 22 partial analyses, and 42 laboratory 
assays made by Alfred A. Chambers and C. H, Kidwell in the 

1 Thomas, R. .T., Tbe Lowell Waterworks and some recent impiovements : New England 
Waterworks Assoc. Jour., vol. 27, Marcb, 1913. 

" .Tolmston, W. S., Ground waters as sources of public water supply: New England 
Waterworks Assoc. Jour., vol. 23, pp. 401-434, 1909. 

3 Baker, W. N., Manual of American waterworks, p. 53, 1897. 

■* Palmer, H. S., Ground water in the Southington-Granby area, Conn. : U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 466 (in press). 



GROUND WATEK FOR PUBLIC SUPPLY. 53 

wiitor-resonrces laboiatorv of the United States Geological Survey. 
These are divicled ninoiio- the three areas as follows: Norwalk area^ 
14 iinalyses and '2''\ assays; Sudield area, 7 analyses and 12 assays; 
(ilastonhury area. 4 analyses and 7 assays. The quantities are 
Imported in parts per million. 

(onstftiK nt.'i (Jetcrinhicd hij analysis. — In 22 of the 25 analyses 
the following constituents Avere chemically determined : Silica 
(SiO._>), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), carbonate 
radicle (CO,), bicarbonate radicle (HCO,), sulphate radicle (SO,), 
chloride radicle (CI), nitrate radicle (NO.,), and total dissolved 
solids at 180° C. In the three remaining analyses (Ridgefield 
Xos. 15 and Ki and Westport No, 39) sodium (Na) and potassium 
(K) were also determined. 

In the assays the following constituents were chemically deter- 
inincd: Iron (Fe). carbonate radicle (CO,), bicarbonate radicle 
(H(MX). sulphate i-adicle (SO,), chloride radicle (CI), and total 
hardness in the conventional terms of CaCOg. 

Consiituents computed. — In the partial analyses the following 
(juantities were computed: Sodium and potassium taken together 
(Na+K), total hardness as CaCOg, scale-forming ingredients, foam- 
ing ingredients, and the probabilitj^ of corrosion in steam boilers. In 
three of the analyses, as noted above, sodium and potassiimi were de- 
termined independently by chemical methods instead of by com- 
putation. 

The computation of sodium and potassium was made by calculat- 
ing the sum of the reacting values of the acid radicles (CO.. HCO3, 
SO4, CI. and NO3) and subtracting from it the sum of the reacting 
values of calcium and magnesium (Ca and Mg). The reacting 
value of a constituent is its capacitj^ to enter into chemical combina- 
tion and is equal to the amount of the constituent present multiplied 
by its valence and divided by its molecular Aveight. The excess of the 
acid radicles is considered to be equivalent to and in equilibrium with 
the sodium and potassium. They were computed on the hypothesis 
tliat only sodium Avas present, by dividing the difference between the 
i-eacting values of the acids and bases by the reacting value of an 
amount of sodium equivalent to one part per million. The result 
is reported as if it were sodium and potassium. 

Total hardness was computed in the conventional terms of cal- 
cium carbonate (CaCO.) by the following formula given by Dole:^ 

IIrr=2.5 Ca-f 4.1 Mg 

The computations of s, f, and c, which represent respectively the 
scale-forming ingredients, the foaming ingredients, and the prob- 

' Mendenb.Tll. W. C, Dole. R. B., and Stablfr, Herman, Groiind water in San .Toaquin 
Vallfy, Calif.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 308, p. 45, 1916. 



54 GROUND WATEE IN NOEWALK AND OTHEE AEEAS, CONN. 

ability of corrosion, were made by the following' formulas given 
by Dole.^ 

s=Sm+Cm+2,95 Ca+1.66 Ms; 

t=2.7 Na 

0=0.0821 Mg-0.0333 CO,— 0.0164 HGOo 

The symbols Sm and Cm represent suspended matter and colloidal 
matter, respectively, and are expressed in parts per million. 

In the assaj^s the same quantities were computed except total 
hardness which was determined, and in addition the total solids 
were computed. In the assays the following formula given by Dole - 
was used to compute the values of the alkalies, sodium and potassium 
(Na+K). 

Na==0.83 CO3+O.4I HCO:+0.71 Cl+0.52 SO,-0.5 H 

Tile symbols represent the parts per million of alkali (sodium and 
potassium) and the carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, and 
total hardness found by the assay. 

The total solids were computed by the following approximate 
formula given by Dole : ^ 

T. S. =SiO,+1.73 CO3+O.86 HCO3+I.48 SO,+1.62 CI 

The s,ymbols represent the parts per million of silica and the car- 
bonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, and cliloride radicles. In applying 
this formula it is necessary to set some arbitrary value for the silica. 
Inasmuch as the average silica content of the analyses of ground 
waters in this report is 23 parts per million, 25 parts per million, a 
convenient round number on the safe side, was taken as the arbitrary 
value for silica. The estimate of solids is rough, and only two signifi- 
cant figures are reported. 

The factor for scale-forming ingredients, s, was computed ac- 
cording to an approximate formula given by Dole.* 

s=Cm+H 

The symbols represent the joarts per million of colloidal matter and 
of total hardness in terms of CaCOa. Inasmuch as the colloidal 
matter is essentially the same as the silica, the above equation lias 
been used in the equivalent form 

sr=.SiO,+H 
The value of silica was taken arbitrarily as 25 parts per million, 
as in the computation of total solids. The unknown Init variable 
ratio between calcium and magnesium introduces a further error. 

^ ld«m, p. 6.5. See also Water-Supply Paper S75, pp. H33-164, 1916. 
- Op. cit., p. .57. 
3 Idem, p. SI. 
* Idem, p. 66. 



GROUND WATER FOR PUBLIC SUPPLY. 



55 



Tlie rosultfci arc tliereloiv reported to tlio nearest 10 il' above 100 and 
to the nearest 5 if below 100. 

The same formula was used for coinputino- foaming Inoredients 
ill the assays as in the analyses. Formulas upon which the classifi- 
cation of waters for boiler use as regards their corrosive tendency are 
based arc ditfcrent with the assays from those used with the analyses. 
(See section on interpretation of analyses, p. 57.) 



PROBABLE ACCURACY OF ANALYSES AND ASSAYS. 

The analyses in this report were all made accoi'ding to the meth- 
otls outlined in "Water-Supply Paper 236/ which gives also a discus- 
sion of accuracy of methods and results based on both theoretical and 
practical considerations. The subjoined table, taken from this dis- 
cussion, gives the limits which have been used for rejecting analytical 
data. Acceptance or rejection of analyses in which sodium and po- 
tassium (Na+K) are calculated is based on the difference between 
the sum of the constituents and the total solids. The sum is com- 
puted by adding the amounts of the various constituents, first con- 

verting bicarbonate to carbonate ^ ^.-, ' 



:CO,. Differences between 



the sum and total solids greater than the limit set forth in the 
above table are generally due to inaccuracy of work or errors of 
computation, though the presence of organic matter may cause seri- 
ous differences. Combining or reacting values have also been used to 
check analyses in which sodium and potassium have been determined. 
The percentage difference between the reacting values of the acids 
and bases is computed and compared with the proper figure accord- 
ing to the total solids in the table. Analyses showing errors greater 
tlian the limits given by the table were rejected or the waters were 
reanalyzed. 

Criteria for rejcctiiir/ (nialjitical datfi. 



Dissolved solids (parts per million). 


Maximum excess 

of total 

dissolved solids 

over sum of 

constituents 

(parts per 

million). 


Maximum excess 

of sum of 

constituents over 

total dissolved 

solids (parts 

per million). 


Maximum error 

of combining 

values (i>er 

cent). 


Not less than - 


I,ess than— 




1 

.50 15 

100 20 

200 30 

500 40 

1 000 ^ 


5 
6 
8 
12 


15 

5 
4 
3 

2 


50 
100 
200 
.500 
1,000 


2,000 






1 





> Dole, R. B., The quality of surface waters in the United States, pt. 1, pp. 9-2.3, 
28-39, 1909. 



56 GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

Assays are approximations which serve to show, by means of a 
few determinations rapidly made and by computations based on 
these determinations, the general character of a water rather than 
the exact amount of each constituent present. It has been shown 
that the values of a water for domestic, irrigation, and boiler use may 
be determined by such assays with a degree of accuracy which is 
sufficient for practical purposes.^ 

CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF WATER. 

The essential points in describing the chemical character of a 
water are, first, the concentration or total amount of mineral matter 
contained therein and, second, the nature of the chief constituents. 
As regards the bases present the most important distinction is that 
between calcium and magnesium on the one hand and sodium and 
potassium on the other. Calcium and magnesium are members of the 
chemical group known as alkali earths and have many similar 
properties, so that they are in contrast with sodium and potassium, 
which belong to the group of alkali metals and are in turn mutually 
closely related. As regards the acid radicles present, distinction is 
made between the carbonate, sulphate, and chloride radicles. As 
carbonate and bicarbonate are always in chemical equilibrium and 
carbonate is the more stable, they are grouped together, and bicar- 
bonate is reduced to carbonate by dividing by 2.03. The acid and 
basic radicles are not balanced against one another directly but are 
lirst reduced to reacting values by multiplying by the valence and 
dividing by the sum of the atomic weights of the constituent atoms. 
The reacting values of the several acid and basic radicles are com- 
pared and used in applying the following classification : ^ 

Classification of water liij chemical charactet'. 

[Carbonate (CO3) 
Calcium (Ca)l U,^^,^,.^^^ (SO.) 
Sodium (Na) / [chloride (CI) 

The designation " calcium " indicates that calcium and magnesium 
predominate among the bases, and " sodium " indicates that sodium 
and potassium predominate. The designation " carbonate," "sul- 
phate," or " chloride " shows which acid radicle predominates. 
Combination of the two terms classifies the water by type, and the 
classification can be abbreviated by the use of symbols — for example, 
"■ Ca-COg " for a calcium-carbonate water. 

^ Mendenhall, Vv. C, Dole, R. B., and Stabler, Herman, Ground water in San Joaquin 
Valley, Calif. : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 398, pp. 43-50, 1916. 
- Idem, p. 80. 



GROl'Xl) WATEll FOW Pl'BLIC SUPPLY. 57 

INTERPRETATION OF ANALYSES AND ASSAYS. 

Ill additioii to the cheiiiical clnssilicnl ion disfu^scd in (ho precod- 
\\\iX section, tlic inialyses and a.ssay> havr been inteii)i-eted as regaixls 
their suitability for boiler and domestic use. 

Mfnifdlization- and hardness-. — Waters may be classilicd accord- 
iniT to the concentration of dissolved niattei- in them — that is. the 
de^roe of mineralization — and according to their har(biess or soap- 
consuming powers. Waters may be considered as low in mineraliza- 
tion if they contain less than 150 parts per million of dissolved 
solids; moderately mineralized if they contain from 150 to 500 parts 
l)er million; highly mineralized if they contain from 500 to 2,000; 
and very highly mineralized if they contain over 2,000 parts per 
million. - 

Hardness in water is due chiefly to the presence of calcium and 
magnesium, which unite with soap, forming insoluble compounds 
that have no cleansing value. Hardness is measured by the soap- 
consuming capacity of a water and can be expressed as an equivalent 
of calcium carbonate (CaCOg). It can be computed from the 
amounts of calcium and magnesium in the water or can be deter- 
mined by actual testing Avith standard soap solution. Waters that 
contain less than 50 parts per million of hardness measured as cal- 
cium carbonate may be considered very soft; waters that contain 
from 50 to 100 parts, soft ; w^aters that contain 100 to 300 parts, hard; 
and waters that contain over 300 parts, very hard. 

Qualify for hoiler nse. — Three kinds of trouble in the operation of 
boilers are due to unfavorable features of the water — the formation 
of scale, foaming, and corrosion. Scale is mineral matter deposited 
witliin th.e boiler as a result of evaporation and heating under pres- 
sure. These deposits increase the consumption of fuel, as they are 
})ad conductors of heat, and they also decrease the cubic capacity of 
the boiler. They are a source of expense and a potential cause of 
explosions. Scale is formed of the substances in the feed vrater that 
;ire insoluble or that become so under the usual conditions of boiler 
operation. It includes all the suspended matter, the silica, iron, 
aluminum, calcium (principally as carbonate and sulphate), and 
uiagnesium (principally as oxide but also as carbonate). Formulas 
for the computation of scale-forming ingredients are given on 
page 54. 

Foaming is the rising of water in the boiler, particularly into the 
steam space al)Ove the normal Avater level, and it is intimately con- 
Tieited with priming, which is the passage of water mixed with steam 
from the boiler into the engine. Foaming results when anything pre- 

1 Idem, p. 82. 



58 GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

vents the free escape of the nascent steam from the Avater. It is be- 
lieved to be due principally to sodium and potassium, which remain 
in solution after most of the other bases are precipitated as scale and 
which increase the surface tension of the water. The increased sur- 
face tension tends to prevent the steam bubbles from bursting and 
escaping. Other factors undoubtedly affect or cause foaming, but 
sodium and potassium are the chief agents. The principal ill effects 
of foaming are that the water carried over with the unbroken steam 
bubbles may injure the engine, and that it may cause dangerously 
violent boiling. Where waters that foam badly are used it is neces- 
sary to "blow off " the water at frequent intervals to get rid of the 
rather concentrated sodium and potassium. A formida for comput- 
ing the amount of foaming ingredients is given on page 54. 

Corrosion, or " pitting," is caused chiefly by the solvent action of 
free acids on the iron of the boiler. Many acids have this effect, but 
the chief ones are those freed by the deposition of hydrates of iron, 
aluminum, and especially of magnesium. The acid radicles that 
were in equilibrium with these bases may pass into equilibrium with 
other bases, thus setting free equivalent quantities of CO3 and HCO3 ; 
or they may decompose carbonates and bicarbonates that have been 
deposited as scale ; or they may combine with the iron of the boiler, 
thus causing corrosion; oV they may do any two or all three of these. 
Even with the most complete analysis this action can be predicted 
only as a probabilit3^ If the acid thus freed exceeds the amount re- 
quired to decompose the carbonates and bicarbonates it corrodes the 
iron. The clanger from corrosion obviously lies in the thinning and 
weakening of the boiler, which may result in explosion. The formula 
for the corrosive tendency ^ used in computations based on the anal- 
yses expresses the relation between the reacting values of magnesium 
and the radicles involving carbonic acid. If c is positive the water is 
corrosive, for this represents an excess of magnesium over carbonate 
and bicarbonate. If c— 0.0499 Ca (the reacting value of the calcium) 
is negative the carbonate and bicarbonate taken together can hold 
both the calcium and magnesium, and corrosion will not be caused 
by the mineral constituents. If c— 0.0499 Ca is positive the ability of 
the carbonate and bicarbonate to hold the calcium and magnesium is 
uncertain and corrosion is uncertain. These three conditions may 
be represented by the symbols C (corrosive), N (noncorrosive), and 
( ? ) (corrosion uncertain) . (For formulas see page 54.) 

In working with the assays it is necessary to restate the conditions, 
as the amounts of calcium and magnesium are unknown. One-fif- 
tieth of the total hardness is equivalent to the reacting value of cal- 
cium and magnesium, and H divided by 230 (or 0.004 H) is equiva- 

1 Meiulenhall, W. C, Dol(», R. B., and Stabler, Herman, op. cit., p. Go. 



GROUND ^\'ATEl; IXIR PUBLIC SUPPLY. 



59 



lont to tlio iViK'tiui:- vahu' of niao'iu'siiim on llu- :i>siiiiij)rK)H that 
Ca^r^^J jMii". a ratio whii-li £>i\-es niagncsiuui its .smallest probable 
value relative to caleiuiu. The reacting- values of carbonate aiul bi- 
carbonate are repre.sentcd, i-espcctively. by O.OSo CO.. and 0,016 
HCO3, each coefficient being the ratio of the valence of the radicle 
to its molecular weight. The following propositions result: 
■ If 0.0;V> CO,+0.0U) ITC(),>().0'2 II, then the mineral matter will 
not cause corrosion. 

Tf 0.0:);^ C().;+0.()1() HCO;;<0.(K)4: H. then the water is corrosive. 

If ().0;',8 CO.I+O.OIG HCO,<0.()2 H but>0.0()4 H. tlien corrosion is 
uncertain. 

Scale forruation. foaming, and corro.sion are the principal criteria 
in rating waters for boiler use, but their evaluation is a matter of 
i)ersonal experience and judgment. The committee on water service 
of the American Kaihvay Engineering and Maintenance of Way As- 
sociation has offered two classifications by Avhich waters in their raAv 
state may be approximately rated, but, as their report states. '• it is 
difficult to define by analy.sis sharply the line between good and liad 
water for steam-making purposes.'' Their tables, which are given 
below with tlii> amounts recalculated in terms of parts per million, 
Avere used in rating the waters for this report. In every case the less 
favorable of the U\o ratings was given. 

U'dlitiys of iratrr for Iioilcr ii-'se accordlnci to incn(stiii<i ojid (■orrod'nKj inyre' 
dirnt.s (111(1 to foainvu/ ingredievt^f- 



Tncrnstin;; and corroding ingredi- 
onte. 


Foammg intcreciifnts. 


Parts per miilioii. 


Classification. 6 


Parts per million. 


I'U-.i.sifieation.c 


More 
than— 


Not more 

than— 


More 
than— 


Not more 
than— 




90 
200 
430 


Good. 
Fair. 
Poor. 
Bad. 




150 


Good. 
Fair 
Bad. 
Very bad. 


90 
200 
430 


150 
250 
400 


250 
400 









oMcndenhali, W. C, Dole, R. B., and Stabler, Herman, Groxmd water in San Joaquin Valley, Calif.: 
!.'. 8. Cieol. Survey Water-Supplv Paper 398, p. 07, 1916. 
b Km. Railway Eui". and Maintenance of Way Assoc. Proc. vol. 5, p. 565, 1904. 
cldeni, vol. Ol p. 13!, 1908. 

Qualify of ■water for domef^tie use. — Waters whose harthiess does 
not exceed 200 parts per million and which are sufficiently low in 
mineral matter to be palatable are satisfactory for drinking and 
cooking. Althougli Avaters high in hardening constituents can be 
used for drinking they are unsatisfactory for cooking and launder- 
ing. Hardness exceeding 1.500 parts per million makes water unde- 
sirable for cookino;, and water much softer than that consumes 



60 GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

excessive quantities of soap in washing. Approximately 200 parts 
per million of carbonate, 250 parts of chloride, and 300 parts of sul- 
phate can be detected by taste. Considerably higher amounts of 
these constituents can be tolerated by a human being, but more than 
800 parts per million of carbonate, 1,500 parts of chloride, or 2,000 
parts of sulphate is apparently intolerable to most people. How- 
ever, local conditions and individual preference largely determine 
the significance of the terms " good " or " bad " as applied to the 
mineral quality of water for domestic use. 

CONTAMINATION. 

Water supplies may become contaminated in various ways, chiefly 
by industrial and manufacturing wastes, by the washing in of sur- 
face drainage, or by sewage. The objectionable materials derived 
from industrial wastes are largely chemical ; those derived from sur- 
face wash or seAvage are organic, the germs of disease. As industrial 
wastes do not frequently pollute ground-water supplies, they are 
passed over briefly in this report. Sea water causes serious trouble 
in parts of the Norwalk area but need not be considered except in 
a strip along the shore of Long Island Sound. Sewage is 'a very 
serious clanger and is of various sorts, including animal excreta, 
human excreta, and kitchen wastes. It is only through a nearly 
criminal neglect of the elementary principles of h3^giene and sanita- 
tion that these substances ever get into water supplies. Wells should 
never be constructed where there is any possibility of underflow 
from barnyards, latrines, or kitchen drains. No spring that is thus 
wrongly situated should be used. No bai-nyard, pigpen, latrine, or 
kitchen drain should be built in a situation where it might pollute a 
well or spring. No rule can be laid down as to the direction of flow 
of the underground water, though it is in general the same as the 
direction of slope of the surface of the ground. Similarly no rule 
can be given as to what may be considered a safe distance between a 
well or spring and a source of pollution. To be safe this distance 
should always be made as great as possible. 

The excreta of all animals, especially of human beings, contain 
considerable amounts of chloride that has been taken into the body 
in the form of sodium chloride (common salt) and discharged in the 
same condition. The human excreta are richer in chloride because 
liuman beings are able to obtain more salt. Chloride is a normal 
constituent of all waters in Connecticut and is derived in part from 
the sea by the agencj?- of the wind, which carries inland small amounts 
of salt-laden spray. There is, then, for every point a " normal " 
amount of chloride, the amount that is normally carried there by 
the wind. Along the shore of Long Island Sound it is rather large, 



GR0U:N'D WATEi; FOn PUBLIC SUPPLY. 61 

but inliiiul it is siiiall. I'lio uiiiount of cliloriile in iiormnl watei's of 
Connectiout lias been determined for different parts of the State 
tind slioAvn on maps ' indicating!: the normal distribution of chloride 
by means of isochlors, or lines dehnin.i!; areas within which the 
waters in their natural state contain certain definite amounts of 
cliloride. In the SufHcld area the normal chloride is about 1.5 parts 
per million, and in the (ilastonbury area about 2 parts. In the in- 
land portion (Ridgefield) of the Norwalk area the normal chloride 
is from 2 to 2.5 parts per million, but alon^; the shore it is much 
irreater. This wind-blown salt is almost the only normal source of 
cidoi'ide for Avatei's deri\ed from the crystalline rocks, the till, or 
the stratified drift, though it is possible that some of the sandstone 
Nvaters have dissolved small amounts of salt that was included in 
the sediments dnring their deposition. Chloride may be readily and 
accui-ately determined by the chemist. Any water which has an un- 
due amount of chloride should be looked on with suspicion and 
should not be used in its raw state unless frequent bacteriologic ex- 
amination shows it to be indubitably safe. Many of the cases of 
tA'phoid fever that have occurred in the State have been traced to 
water supplies contaminated by human excreta. 

Xitrates may also be considered as indicators of contamination by 
sewage, for nitrogen exists in all excreta as nitrates or in forms 
readily convertible to nitrates through oxidation. Waters that 
contain more than 6 or 7 parts per million of nitrate should be 
looked on with suspicion and subjected to bacteriologic examination. 
A content of more than 12 parts per million of nitrate usually 
indicates gross contamination. Waters in which the total min- 
eral content is unusiuilly high may be approved though the nitrate 
is a little high, whereas in waters with a low total mineral con- 
tent less nitrate is alloAvable. In general waters that are high in 
both nitrate and chloride indicate contamination by human ex- 
creta, Avhereas waters that are high in nitrate but contain only a 
normal amount of chloride indicate contamination hj live stock. 
Although waters that contain less than 6 parts per million of chlo- 
ride are probably free from animal contamination, waters that have 
unusually little or no nitrate should be treated wdth suspicion, for 
sewage often contains denitrifying bacteria which destroy the 
nitrates and convert them to nitrites and perhaps to free nitrogen 
and am.monia. Because of the comparatively unstable character of 
the nitrogen in the nitrates, the nitrate content is a far less reliable 
indicator of pollution than chloride, w'hich is chemicall}'^ very stable. 



^ Smith, H. E., Connecticut State Board of Health Kept, for 1002, pp. 227-242. 

Orf^iiry, U. E., ;mfl Ellis, I'. E.. I'mlfrcronnd-water r(<sources of (.'onnecricut : U. S. 
Geol. Survpy Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 108, 1909. 



62 GROUND WATER Ilf WOEWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

It is 2)ossible in general to locate the source of excessive chloride 
or nitrate by inspection of the surroundings of the well or spring 
from which the sample for analysis was obtained. In fact, it is 
often ])ossible on simple examination of the premises to predict that 
analysis will show excessive chloride or nitrate. 

In addition to making safe the location of a well, or spring by 
seeing to it that no potential source of pollution is near, precautions 
should be taken to prevent the entrance of surface wash. The 
ground around dug wells should be filled in and' tamped enough to 
make rain water and drippings flow away from them and not back 
into them. An excellent protection is a concrete apron several feet 
wide on ail sides of the well and sloping away from it. Cattle^ 
should be kej^t away from wells and springs by a fence, and the^' 
should be watered at a trough some distance away. Drilled wells 
should have the iron casing set firmly into the bedrock to prevent 
the entrance of shallow ground water, and the casing should extend 
a foot above the ground to keep out surface wash. A little extra 
care, labor, and expense in the protection of a w^ater supply will be 
well repaid by the feeling of safety gained, if not by the saving of 
doctors' bills and perhaps even of life. 

TABULATIONS. 

The results of the analyses and assays and the computations based 
on them are tabulated for each town included in this report. 

Tables of analyses and assays comparing the waters from the vari- 
ous water-bearing formations are given on page 64. Within each 
table the data have been grouped according to the geologic for- 
mation from which the waters were obtained, and the average 
amounts of each constituent are reported, together with the number 
of analyses or assays used in obtaining the average. Figure 12 is a 
graphic representation of the table comparing the groups of analyses. 
The analyses of dolomite water and beach-sancl water are not plotted 
except as they are involved in the general average of the 25 analyses. 

With the possible exception of the analyses of w^aters from strati- 
fied drift and till, the number of analyses available is too small to 
represent adequately the average composition of waters from tlie 
various water-bearing formations. As it is inadvisable to draw 
generalizations from these data regarding the quality of water by 
formations, the graph (see fig. 12) and tables of averages are pre- 
sented with that understanding and are not intended to be inter- 
preted as conclusive. 

The presence of carbonate in waters is dependent upon the con- 
dition of its chemical equilibrium with bicarbonate. As the 



(iROi'xn WATioi; loi; itiujc sri'j'LN 



(>3 




64 



GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 



equilibrium is a variable, separate averages of carbonate and bicar- 
bonate are often difficult of interpretation. Thus it will be noticed 
in the table of averages of analyses that some of the waters con- 
tained no carbonate at the time of analysis, although it is possible 
that under certain conditions carbonate might be present in them. 
As a basis for more careful comparison of the waters it would be 
advisable to convert the bicarbonate into carbonate by dividing the 
figure for bicarbonate by 2.03. 

Averages of groups of analyses of waters from the icater-l)earing formations of 
the Nor walk, Suffiehl, and Glastonhurij areas, Connecticut. 

[Parts per million except as otherwise stated.] 

















o jo 






^^• 


m 


, 




M 












^ 


■3 


o o 


o 




■ ^ 




2 


■rt 


fHo, 












2r7 


^ 




^ 


■^ 


o 


M 


^ 


2 


'^s 


Formation. 


d 
a 


i 


a 

3 
'o 


i 
■a 

1 


li 


03 

f 

o 


^5 

o 


d 

+3^ — ' 

Kl 

a 
•3 

CO 


o 


o 

o3'~' 


"o 
o 


|d 

s 

o 


a.S 
i 

o 

CO 


g 


2 2 

2; '^ 


Gneiss 


26 
17 


0.65 
14 


13 
IS 


4.1 
4 fi 


8.2 
18 


2.7 



48 
77 


17 
14 


4.4 
6.2 


0.22 
.08 


100 

114 


SO 
64 


72 

78 


23 

49 


2 


Dolomite 


al 


Sandstone 


?fi 


3? 


44 


Q ?. 


21 


4 6 


8?, 


105 


4 1 


? 8 


960 


1,50 


170 


57 


3 


Stratified drift 


19 


■SO 


13 


3 7 


17 





49 


19 


13 


7 


119 


48 


64 


45 


10 


Till 


?3 


m 


14 


5 5 


15 


P 


70 


14 


8.7 


3.6 


115 


59 


75 


39 


8 




11 
21 


.32 
.32 


22 

18 


6.0 
5.1 


37 
17 


.0 

1.0 


90 

42 


49 
29 


30 
10 


4.4 
4.5 


218 
140 


80 
66 


86 
82 


100 
45 


ol 


Average of 25 analyses 





a Only analysis available from this formation. 

Averages of groups of assays of iraters from the various irater-hearing fotma- 
tions of the Norwalk, Suffield, and Glastonbury areas, Connecticut. 

(Parts per million except as otherwise stated.] 



Formation. 



Hi 



so 

03O 



csO 
ao 

«2 



°.2 

.CI 



eg 

is 



O in . 

<s a, 
o « O 

m.2 



■ W.J 



Gneiss 

Sandstone 

Stratified drift 

Till 

Average of 42 assays 



0.32 
.25 
.22 
.21 

.22 



3.3 

4.0 

.0 

.9 



76 
135 

44 
109 



48 
8.6 
17 
12 

17 



204 
193 
113 
161 



129 
52 
96 



125 
153 

77 
120 

102 



42 



TEMPERATirRE OF GROUND WATER. 



The temperature of ground water depends on and tends to become 
the same as that of the material through which it circulates. A layer 
a few inches thick at the top of the ground varies greatly in tempera- 
ture every 24 hours, owing to the heating effect of the sun in the da}^- 
time and the radiation of heat at night. This phenomenon is particu- 



GROU.XI) WATKIl FOR rUBLIC SUPrLY. 65 

lai'ly noticeable early in the sprin^-, when the <i:r()iin(l Ireezes liai'd at 
night but tlunvs and beeomejs sol't and nuuUly (buin<>- the day. At a 
moderate depth these diurnal variations become negligible and only 
seasonal fluctuations oi" tem])erature occur. These seasonal fluc- 
tuations of temperatuie correspond to the freezing of the gi'oimd 
to a depth of several feet in the fall and the spring thawing of 
this ground, which has remained frozen through the winter. 
At a still greater depth there are not even seasonal fluctuations and 
the temperature is uniform the year around. The depth of this zone 
of no seasonal fluctuation of temperature is believed to be r»0 or 60 
feet. Its temperature tends to be the same as the mean annual 
temperature of the locality, and water which circulates through it 
tends to have the same temperature as the mean annual temperature. 
In the southern part of tlie Xorwalk area the normal ground-water 
temperature is probably about 49.5° F., the mean annual temperature 
at New Haven, a place of similar situation.^ In the northern part 
of the Xorwalk area the normal ground-water temperature is per- 
liaps 1° lower because of the gi'eater elevation and the greater 
distance from the ameliorating influence of Long Island Sound. 
In the Suffield area the normal ground-water temperature is probably 
about 48.5°, the mean annual temperature at Hartford. This will 
also hold for the northern or lowland part of the Glastonbury area, 
but in the southern or highland part the normal ground-water 
temperature will be half a degree or a degree lower. In the region 
of no seasonal fluctuation of temperature there is a rather uniform 
increase of temperature with increasing depth, due to the internal 
heat of the earth. This amounts to 1° F. for every 50 to 100 feet 
increase in depth, so that deep drilled wells usually get slightly 
warmer water. 

Springs and wells whose waters have traveled a considerable 
distance in the zone of no seasonal fluctuation should have this 
temperature uniformly the year around. If the circulation has been 
in large part in the zone of seasonal fluctuation the water will be 
warmer in summer than in winter. It seems probable that springs 
on north slopes, where the heating effect of the sun is at a minimum, 
would be a little cooler than normal, and springs on south slopes, 
where insolation is at a maximum, would be a little warmer than 
normal. Because of this factor and because of the increase of 
temperature in depth, the actual temperature of the water is of less 
importance in determining whether Avater has circulated near the 
surface or at considerable depth than the uniformity of the tempera- 
ture the year around. 

• Summaries of climatolocacal data hy flections : U. S. Weatlior Bviroau P.ull. 2. pt. 2, 
sec. 105, p. 11, 1905. 

1.54444°— 20 5 



66 GROTJls^D WATER liV NORWALK All^D OTHER AREAS, CONJST. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF TOWNS. 
DABIEN. 
AREA, I^OPULATION, AJTD INDUSTRIES. 

Darien is on the southern liorder of S'airfield County, between 
Stamford and Korwalk, Long Island Sound forms the south 
boundary and Noroton Kiver the Yv^est boundary. The east boundary 
m part follows Fivemile Kiver. The area of the town is about 13 
square miles, of which 3 square miles, or about 25 per ceiit of the 
whole area, is wood.ed. 

The territory was taken from Stamford and made a separate town 
in 1820. In 1910 the population was 3,946, an increase of 830 in the 
decade from 1900. The mean density of population is 312 to the 
square mile. The following table gives the population at each cen- 
sus and the per cent of change during the preceding decade: 

ropulatiosi of Darien/' 



Year. 


Popula- 
tion, 


Per cent 
ehaiige. 


Year. 


Popula- Per com 
tion. change. 


1820 


1,126 
1,212 
1,080 
1, 454 
1, 705 


+ 8 
-11 

+ 35 

+ 17 


1S70 


1,808 
1,949 
2,276 
3,116 
3,946 


+ 6 


1S30 


isso - 


r ^i 


18*0 


1890 


+ 17 


1850 


190i> . 




1860 


1910 


+ 27 









aCoanoeticut rvC,2;isi?r aad Maiiua!, 1915, ]}. GJ3. 

There has been grov* tli in every decade except that from 1830 to 
1840. In the following decade, 1840 to IS'oO, there was an unusually 
large growth, due presumably to tlie opening of the New York & 
New Haven Railroad in 1849. During the last two decades tliere has 
been a relatively great increase in the population which is dependent 
in large part on the proximity of New York City. A number of 
extensive and beautiful residential estates have been established in 
Darien, and it is probable that this sort of development w^ill con- 
tinue. The growth for the next tew decades will probably be mod- 
erate and steady. Darien and Noroton are the principal settlements. 
Both have stations on the main line of the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford Railroad. A trolley line connects Stamford and Norwalk 
and runs through Darien. Post offices are maintained at Darien, 
Noroton, and Noroton Heights, and the outlying districts are served 
by rural delivery. The Boston Post Road, one of the State trunk- 
line highways, runs east and west near the south boundary of the 
town. About 4 miles of its length is in Darien, and it connects all 
the shore towns betv/een Bridgeport and Nevv^ York. In addition, 
there are about 60 miles of road worked by the town and a number 
of miles of semipublic roads privately maintained. The town roads 



r. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATEK-SUPPLY PAPER 470 PLATE VIII 




A. ESTUARY IN DARIEN, CONN. 







'^'■-i^<:X -'ik^^iy, 



,.^' 



B. SECTION OF STRATIFIED DRIFT, DARIEN, CONN. 



liARIEN. <)7 

are excelleiil ami are con.-truetod \n part oi' macadam and in pait of 
gravel. 

Tlie principal tntlu.stries of Darien are agriculture and oyslor 
farming. Tlie residential estates directly and indirectly furnish 
einplt)ynient to n»any of the inhabitanfs. 

SUIU'\\Ctl FEATURES. 

Darien, altliough it lies near sea level, must be included in the 
\vesteri\ highlands of Connecticut because of the character of its 
bedrock and tlie topography developed thereon. The strongly ridged 
and furroAved surface of erosion has been depressed and in part 
submerged. Small estuaries alternate with peninsulas and make a 
very irregular shore line. The maximum elevation, about 260 feet 
above sea level, is found on several ridges near tlie north boundary. 

A long cycle of erosion had reduced this regio)i to a plain. Sub- 
sequently this plain was uplifted and dissected, forming ridges and 
elongated hills that trend about north and south. The hills were 
somewhat worn' down and the valleys partly filled w^ith debris. In 
a strip of coimtry about a mile wide along the shore there are many 
small knobs of solid rock which rise above the water level of the 
bays and above the salt marshes. It is belie\"ed that since its 
glaciation the region has been depressed relative to sea level, that the 
bays and estuaries are drowned valleys, and that the peniiLsulas are 
partly submerged ridges. Plate VIII, A^ a view in the southeasteiii 
part of the town, shows an estuary bordered b}'^ salt marshes above 
wliich rise small, wooded, rocky hills. 

The eastern part of the tov.n is drained by Fivemile Kiver and 
the western by Xoroton River. The central part of the town is 
drained by Stony Brook and a second unnamed brook. These streams 
rise just beyond the north boundary of the town and are about T) 
miles long. There are also a few short brooks in the soutli part of tlie 
town that drain directly into the Sound. 

WATEK-BEAKINti FORMATIONS. 

Schist- and gneiss.- — Three bedrock formutions have been recog- 
nized in Darien ^ — Becket granite gneiss. Danbur}- gTanodiorite 
gneiss, and Thomaston granite gneiss. 

The Becket granite gneiss, which underlies a small area along the 
north portion of the Fivemile Brook boundarj''. is of complex origin — 
that is, it is a schist, into which a great deal of igneous material has 
been injected, thus altering its character. The rock consists of ill- 



1 Gregory, H. E., and Robinson, II. 11., Prpliminary geological map of Conn«etieut : Con- 
necticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 



t>8 GEOUXD WATER IN NORWALK K^B OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

defined alternating bands of gray schist and sheets of granitic and 
liornblendic material. 

The Thomaston granite gneiss is the bedrock in a small area in 
the northwest corner of the town and a larger area around and south 
of Noroton. Originalh^ it was gTanite composed essentially of 
quartz, feldspar, and mica with minor quantities of accessory 
minerals. Subsequent mashing has given it a moderately pro- 
nounced gneissic texture expressed by dark bands that are relatively 
rich in black mica. The degree to which this texture is developed 
varies from place to place. 

The Danbury granodiorite gneiss is similar to the Thomaston 
granite gneiss except that it has hornblende in addition to quartz, 
feldspar, and mica. Its gneissic character is in general less pro- 
nounced but is everywhere clearly distinguishable. This formation 
underlies most of Darien. 

The water-bearing properties of the three bedrocks are so much 
alike that they may be considered together. Interstitial water is 
almost if not entirely absent. A number of elongated openings, 
lissu.res, and joint cracks exist in these rocks. Water which has 
fallen as rain and snow and been absorbed by the unconsolidated 
mantle rock may be transmitted ultimately to the intricate net- 
work of intersecting fissures in the bedrock. Wells drilled into the 
rock are apt to intersect one or more such water-bearing crevices 
and to obtain moderate supplies. In general the fissures are more 
abunflant in the higher zones of the bedrock than farther down. It 
is therefore better policy to abandon a well that is unsuccessful in 
the first 300 feet arid to try in a new place, rather than to drill 
deeper. This is shown by the following table compiled from the 
data on drilled wells given on page 74. The wells have been grouped 
according to depth, and the ratio of the yield (in gallons per 
minute) to the depth computed. The number of gallons per minute 
obtained for each foot drilled is in general less in the deeper groups 
than in the shallower groups. 

Relation of yield of drilled 'nells to depth. 



Depth of wells (feet) - ■ 

Number of wells 

Total depth - - feet- 

Total yield gallons per minute. 

Average yield .do- - - 

Yield per foot of drilling do. . . 



0-99. 


100-199. 


200-299. 


300-399. 


400-499. 


7 


8 


3 


3 


5 


o29 


1,093 


694 


1,027 


2,145 


42.5 


39 


14.5 


23.5 


94 


6 


5 


5 


8 


19 


.080 


.036 


.021 


.023 


.044 



500 and 
over. 



4 
3,468 
32.5 
7 
.009 



Tlie depths of 40 drilled w^ells in Darien were ascertained. They 
range from 65 to 1,465 feet and average 266 feet. The yields of 30 of 



DAKIEN. 



09 



these wells uverao-e 8 gallons a minute. A few of them yielded no 
water, and the oroatest yield was ^*0 g'allons a niinnle. 

No general statement can be made as to the direction and extent 
of the water-bearing fissnres in the town. Systems of fissures, or a set 
of two or three systems, are developed locally. One system is roughly 
horizontal and i?s cut by one or two steeply inclined fissure systems. 
One of the inclined systems tends to dominate the other. It is said 
that on the east side of Long Neck Point there is more probability 
of obtaining salt water in deep wells than on the west side. A pos- 
sible explanation of this condition is suggested in figure 13. A 
system of strong fissures striking north and dipping west would be 
likely to carry sea Avater in.to wells near the east shore, for the 
fissure cut by such Avells crops out under the Avatei's of the Sound. 
The fissures cut by drilled 
wells on the west side of 
the peninsula would be 
fissures that crop out 
above sea level, The out- 
crops of bedrock on Long 
Neck Point are so few 
tliat the direction of the 
fissure systems could not 
be ascertained. 

It is impossible to make 
a general statement as to 
1k)w near the shore a well may be drilled with certainty of avoiding 
pollution b}^ sea water, because of the great irregidarity of the fissure 
systems. However, it seems inadvisable to drill within 500 feet of 
the shore, or on a small island. 

TJ7]. — Overlying the consolidated bedrock in Darien are found 
three types of mnntle rock — till, stratified drift, and the muds of the 
salt marshes, the last of which, however, are not an available source 
of w^ater suppl3^ 

Till is the material formed by the plowing and scraping action 
of the great ice sheet that overrode the region in glacial time. It 
consists of a thoroughly mixed mass of debris of all kinds of material 
in fragments Avhich range in size from the finest of rock-flour par- 
ticles to boulders weighing tons. It comprises a matrix of sand, silt, 
and I'ock flour in which are embedded pebbles, cobbles, and bouldei"s. 
Between the smaller particles are minute interstices that are capable 
of absorbing rain Avater, of storing it, and of giving it out sloAvly 
to wells aTid springs. AVells dug in till, unless unfavorably situated, 
Avill yield small but fairly reliable supplies of Avater. Forty-three 




Figure 1.' 



IT,vpi)thot!cal section of Long 
I'oiiit, DiU'it-n. 



Nock 



70 GROUjSTD V/ATER IX iNTORWi^iK AND OTIIEE AREAS, GONlv, 

suck wells were measured at Darien in September, 1916. Data re- 
garding the depths found are given in the following table : 

Siii)iina>-[i of vjeUs dug in till in Daricii. 





Total Depth to 
depth. water. 

1 


Depth of 
water. 




Feet. 
55.0 
6.7 
19.6 


Feet. 
35.0 
3.1 
13.3" 


Feet. 
20 








& 4 







Twentj/'-six of the v^'ells vrere said to be unfailing, and eig^iit were 
said to fail. The reliability of the remaining nine wells was not as- 
certained. 

Stratified, drift. — Along Norwalk Eiver and Fivemile River and 
in other valley bottoms till is absent and stratified drift eonstitutes 
the mantle rock. This drift is a water-laid deposit formed for the 
most part by the rev/orking of the materials of the till. The dif- 
ferent sizes have been sorted from one aBO-ther and laid in dis- 
tinct beds and lenses. Because of the elin-iination to a great extent 
of fine particles from the spaces between the larger ones, this type 
of deposit is more porous than till. It not only can contain more 
water, but because of the greater size of the passages it will transmit 
water more readily. This greater porosity makes it a better source 
of water than till, except where the body of stratified drift is in a 
bad topographic situation from which the water may readily seep 
awa}^ The wells of the Tokeneke Water Co. and two domestic wells 
(Nos. 28 and 2&) in Barien are dug in stratified drift. One spring, 
No. %'% (see map, PL II), is at the foot of a terrace scarp and at 
the inner edge of the flood plain of Fivemile Eive^. This spring was 
yielding about a gallon a minute in September and had a tempera- 
ture of 51° F. 

QUALITY OF GROU^TD WATER. 

The accompanying table gives the results of two analyses and two 
assays of samples of ground waters collected in the tov»'n of Darien, 
The waters are low in mineral content, are very soft, and are suit- 
able for boiler use. In so far as may be determined by chemical 
investigation of the mineral content of these waters they are accept- 
able for domestic use. No. 16 and the composite sample, No. 71 
and 7lA, are calcium-carbonate in type. Nos. 49 and 51 are sodium- 
carbonate waters. 



DAIilE^s. 



71 



i'hciitic'.il cam iM'^ it ion and clds.si/irdii-in of iiroinul iratt.rs in J)(iri<ii.'' 

[Parts per million. Collected Dec. 9, 1916; analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers and (.'. Jl. Kidwcll. 
Xumbors of analyses and assays correspond with those used on I'l. II.) 



Silica (SiO-.) 

lro!i (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+Kjf 

C;u"h<jnateradicle (CO:;) 

Biiarl lonal e radicle (liCO;)) 

Sulpliaie radicle (S0^) 

Chloride radicle f CI) 

Nil raio radicle ( NOn) 

Total dis,solvcd solidsat 180 =" C. .. 

Total hardness as CaCOs 

Scale-forming constituents^ 

Foaming constitucntsf 

Chemical character 

Prol laliility of corrosion/ 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic use 



-\jialyses.'' 



Assays, c 



S3 
.40 
9.6 
4.5 
9.1 
5.3 
&1 
5.9 
3.6 
.43 
68 
:42 
69 



Ca-COs 
(?) 
Good 
Gootl. 



20 

.11 
10 
■i.-.', 
U 

.0 
38 
"16 
9.=« 
.77 
SO 
f 38 
55 
30 



0.41 



; 


15 


U 


.0 


.0 


30 


0^ 


22 


8.0 


4.2 , 


4.2 


<to 


<G7 


23 


14 


50 


40 


40 


SO 



Ca-COs 


Na-CC, ' 


(?) 


N ' 


Good. 


Good. 


Good. 


Good. 



Na-COa 

N 

Good. 

Good. 



"For location and other descriptive information see pp. 72-74. 

*For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 

c Approximations: for methods used in assays and reliabiiitv of results sse pp. 52-00. 

d Collected December 7. 1916. 

( Computed. 

/Based 0'\ computed quantity; (?)=corr6sion uncertain; X=uoncorrosive. 

PUBLIC WATEU SUPFLIHS. 

Two companies supply' the residents of Darien with water. The 
Noroton Water Co. has been supph'ing Darien. Noroton, and Noro- 
ton Heights in Darien and a fsAv customers in Glenbrook in Stam- 
ford since 1911. It buys its water by meter from the Stamford 
Water Co. and distributes it by gra\aty under a pressure of 55 to 
65 pounds to the square inch through 15.6 miles of main pipe to 
96 hydrants and 406 metered service taps.^ The 2,500 people that 
are supplied consume an average of 194,000 gallons a day. Mr. 
Harold H. Mead, the superintendent, stated in 1916 that the winter 
consumption is only two-thirds as great as the summer consumption. 
The company owns two reservoir sites, one in North Stamford and 
one in New Canaan, which will eventually be used. 

The Tokeneke Water Co. is a subsidiary of the Tokeneke Cor- 
poration which has made an extensive land development in the 
southeast corner of the town. Service Avas begun in December, 
1909, At present water from tv\'o large dug wells in stratified drift 
is pumped to a steel standpipe of 46,500 gallons capacity, and is 
distributed by gravity through 3.5 miles of mains to 16 hydrants 



1 Connecticut I'liblic Utilities Commission liept., 1017. 



72 



GROUND WATER IN XORWALK AXD OTHER AREAS, CONN. 



iind 81 service taps. The pressure is from 40 to 60 pounds to the 
square inch. There are two single-acting triplex Gould pumps of 
G^-inch bore and 8-inch stroke, driven by upright single-cylinder 
gasoline engines. The capacitj^ of each pump is said by Mr. Charles 
F. Barker, the superintendent, to be 150 gallons a minute. A small 
single-acting triplex Gould pump, of 3|-inch bore and 4-inch stroke, 
that has a capacity of 25 gallons a minute and is driven by an electric 
motor, is used as an auxiliary. 

The site of the wells was originally a terrace, but in excavating 
gravel for road building it has been cut down nearly to the level of 
the flood plain. Plate VIII, B^ shows the fact of the remaining 
portion of the terrace and the character of the stratified drift at 
this point. Plate IX, ^1, shows the pumping plant and the roofs 
of the wells. At the left is well No. 2 (No. TlA on the map, PL II), 
which is 32 feet in diameter and 13 feet deep, at the center is the 
pump house, and at the right is well No. 1 (No. Tl on the map), 
which is 15 feet in diameter and 10 feet deep. According to Mr. 
Barker, if pumping is done at the rate of 150 gallons a mJnute and 
water is taken from both wells the drawdown, or depression of the 
water level, is about 2 feet. If well No. 1 is pumped alone the 
water is depressed to the suction limit in 3 or 4 hours. If well No. 2 
is pumped alone the drawdown is about 2|^ feet, but the water in 
well No. 1, 100 feet away, is lowered about 6 inches. Mr. Barker 
estimates the daily consumption in the summer months to be 60,000 
to 70.000 gallons a day. but only a third as much in winter. 

RECORDS OF WELLS. 
WclU (lug in till in Daricn. 



Xo. on 
PI. 11. 



0A\iier. 



iTopoicraphic 
i situation. 



Wra. E.Clark 



Slope. . . 

do.. 

do.. 

Plateau. 
do.. 

Slope... 



H. V. Miller ! do.. 

I do.. 

I Plateau. 

I Slope. .. 

do.. 

John Straks Plain. . . 



' do. 

I Slope.. 

E. C. Bates | do. 

I Plain.. 

I Slope.. 

' do. 

do. 



n C3 


a' 
o 


o 

is 

5^ 


Feet. 


Fat. 


Fcef. 


130 


25.0 


21.8 


130 


24.1 


16.6 


205 


18.6 


10.2 


205 


26.2 


10.1 


205 


19.3 


10.1 


240 


16.1 


6.2 


2.35 


18.5 


14.1 


230 


20.9 


13.9 


190 


17.9 


14.7 


210 


17.6 


9.3 


180 


15.1 


9.5 


170 


17.6 


14.2 


150 


14.8 


12.8 


185 


20.7 


15.8 


160 


20.5 


10.2 


75 


17.0 


15.2 


75 


14.2 


8.7 


' 75 


19.0 


16.1 


50 


26.3 


23.2 



Remarks. 



Feet. 






3.2 


Windlass rig 


Nonf ailing. 


7.5 


. . do. . . 


Do. 


8.4 


.. ..do 


Do. 


16.1 


Chain pumo 


Do. 


9.2 


do....: 




9.9 


Windlass riband 
house pump. 




4.4 


Chain pump 


Fails. 


7.0 


Windlass rig 


Nonf ailing. 


3.2 


Chain pump 


Do. 


8.3 


do 


Do. 


5.6 


Windlass rig 


Do. 


3.4 


Windlass rig and 
house pump. 


Do. 


2.0 


Deep-v.'ellpump 


Do. 


4.9 


Chain pump 


Abandoned. 


10.3 


House pump 


Nonf ailing. 


1.8 


No rig 


Do. 


5.5 


Chain pump 


Do. 


2.9 


Windlass rig 


Do. 


3.1 


do.......... 


Do. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATKH-SUI'I'I.Y TAPKR 17!) PLATK IX 




A. PLANT OF THE TOKENEKE WATER CO., DARIEN, CONN. 




B. STRATIFIED DRIFT PLAIN, EAST GRANBY, CONN. 



DARIKN. 



73 



Wells dun i» till ill DarUn — Continued. 



No. on 
I'i.ll. 



f.O 

eoA 

60B I 
62 
66 
67 
75 
76 
77 



J. C. Ulirlaub. 



roiiosjiiiphic 
situation. 



Hilltop. 
Slope . . . 
I'lateau. 
Slopp. . . 
Plain... 

do.. 

Slope. . . 

Plain 

Slope. . . 
do-- 



Mlsses Brady do . 



do. 

Plain . . 



James Kenealy.. 



James A. 
bridge. 

do 

do 



Trow- 



Slope..-. 



Ridge. 

Slope.. 

do. 

do. 

Plain.. 
Slope . . 

do. 

do. 

Plain. . 



Vcet. 
180 
85 
165 
IGO 
SO 
70 
SO 
ilO 
140 
115 



110 
30 
45 
50 



Fffi. 
35.0 
17.8 
30.6 
27. 5 
13. 9 
12.2 
16.4 
6.7 
2:3.5 
M.4 
11.4 

18.5 
12.5 
9.0 
10.5 



55. 

.38.0 
27.0 
33.1 
12.1 
17.2 
16.0 
13.0 



20. 
14.3 
16.8 
13.4 

8.7 
11.1 
11.3 

3.1 
15. 7 
13.0 

8.0 

12.3 
3.2 

4.5 
7.6 



35.0 

20.0 
20.0 
20. T 

8.2 
13.3 
12.7 
12. 3 

7.2 



Fe-I 

15.0 

3.5 

13.8 

14.1 

5.2 

1.1 

5.1 

3.6 

7.8 

1.4 

3.4 

6.2 
9.3 

4.5 
2.9 



20.0 

18.0 
7.0 

13.0 
3.9 
3.9 
3.3 
.7 
1.3 



(«) 

Windla.ss ri^'. . 
do 

Chain pump. . 

Windlass rig.. 

'V ivo-bueket rii 

Windlas.srig.. 

House pump.. 

Chain pump . . 
do 

House pump. . 

Chain nump. . 

do". 

One-bucket rig 
Chain pump . . 



Windlass rif;. 
do 

Chain pump. 

do 

do 

House pump . 



Rcmuks. 



Nonfailing. 

]>o. 
Fails. 
j Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Do. 

Do. 
Fails. 

Fails. For assay 
.see p. 71. 

Nonfailing. 

Nonfailing: fresh 
water though 
only 125 feet 
from well No. 
53. For assay 
see p. 71. 

Fails. 

Do. (ft) 
Do.(<-) 
Nonfailing. 
Do. 
Do.(d) 



Fails. 



a Well is 20 feet in dianeter. Pumped by electricity to tank. 

* Well is 3"0 feet east of well No 60. 

« Well is 150 feet south of well No. 60. 

<l Well is in a basin between two rock ledges. 

Wells dug in stratified drift in Dnrien. 



No. on 
PI. IT. 


Ovriwr 


To)>ographic 
situation. 


Eleva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Depth 

of 
water 
in well. 


Rig. 


Uemark.s. 


2S 




Slope 

Plain 

do 

do 


Feet. 
25 
20 

15 

15 


Feet. 
25.0 
23.9 
10.0 

13.0 


Feet. 
23.2 
19.3 
6.5 

S.O 


Feet. 
1.8 
4.6 
3.5 


House pump.. 
. ..do 




29 




Nonfailing 


71 
71 A 


Tokeneke Water 
Co. 

do 


(") 
(0 


Nonfailing. 
For analysis 
see p. 71.6 
Do. 



« Well is 15 feet in diameter; will yield l.'iO gallons a minute. 
b Simple collected for analysis is composite of Nos. 71 and 71 A. 

c Well is 32 feet in diameter: will yield 150 gallons a minute. There is some interference between this 
well and well No. 71, which is 200 feet farther south. 



74 GROUISTD WATER IX jSTOEWALK AXD OTHER AREAS, COISriSr. 

D-rillcd wells in Daricn. 



No. on 

pi.n. 


O-wner. 


Topographic 
situation. 


Eleya- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
rock. 


Depth 
to 

water. 


Diam- 
eter. 


Yield 
per 
min- 
ute. 


Remarks. 


15 


Col. Edgerton 

W.C. Humbert 


Slope ...... 

. ..do -. 


Feci. 
155 
115 

110 

105 

95 

45 

90 

30 

120 

140 

140 

50 

20 

15 

10 

15 

10 
CO 
30 
40 
30 


Fed. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Inches. 


Galls. 




16 


125 

71 
110 

75 
189 
200 
400 
150 
503 
425 


4S 


30 

14 


13 

16 
15 
20 
20 


6 

6 

6 
6 


5 

2 
15 
3 

Si- 
Slight. 
26 
(a) 
26 
50 




IS 


Ernest BaHhol 


do 


gneiss. For 
analysis see 
p. 71. 


20 


Saraii F. Leeson 


do. 




21 


F. M. Smith. 


do 




23 
32 


W. R.S.Bates 

John A. Weed 


do 

do 




35 


C. W. Maary 

Fordfleld estate 

Soldiers' Home 

do.... 


do 

Plateau 

Hill 






s 




38 

40 

40A 


■■■■-■ 
12 


15 
15 
(0 


6 

S 

s 


(0. 


42 


Forbes 


Slope 

do 


43 


Henry D. Weed 


175 
6.5 
75 
67 

(/) 

110 

264 

350 

1,465 

1.000 

200 

700 

130 

230 

500 

350 

460 

450 

66i 

78 

75 

153 

103 

410 

128 

93J 

327 








2 
J 




44 




do 




•5 






45 




Plain 

Island 

do 




46 
47 


W. M. Weed 

Johan. Shipv/ay... 


2 


15 




Slightly brack- 
ish. 


48 
62 


Eliza Blcdsell... 

Fred Wecke 


Slope 

do 


13 
17 


13 

20 



6 


34 
4 
14 
3 
Dry. 




55 


Vv'm. Ziegler,jr 


do 




56 


.....do.. 


Island 










56A 


do.g 










56B 


.....do.fi 








1 




57 


do 


Island 

Slope 

do 


25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
75 
70 
75 
60 
60 
40 
65 
50 
15 






Do. 


58 


JofinCort 

H. C. Fleitmau 




5 

20 

20 








59 




9 




61 

filA 


Ivlrs. H. P. Stokes... 

do 

do 

.....do.... 

A. B. Noxon 

Henry Brencher 

Caroline E. Perrj' . . . 


Eidge 

do 

do 

.do 

Slope 

do 

do... 


20 
15 


6 
6 
6 
6 
6 


6 
6 


6 
G 


oh 
6 

10 

Dry. 

2 

10 

3^ 



8 
2 
20 


(0. 


OIC 
63 
64 
65 


20 

9 
IS 
9 
6 
2 
5 
20 
5 
9 


....... 

15 
60 
20 
15 
20 
18 
10 
10 


('). 


68 


L. J. Mead 


do... . 




69 


Miss Zada Dean . . 


do . 




70 
73 


Dr. J. F. Pentecost. 
C. D. Albrecht 


do 

do 


("O. 


74 


Mrs. S. C. Petty 


. do 




7S 


Fred H. Eoryan 


Plain 





« Abundant. 

& For further descriptiorn sec U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Sunply Paper 232, p. 90, 1909. 

c Op. cit.,p. 91. 

<^ Water potable, though slightly brackish. 

e Salt water, although 500 feet from shoi-e. 

f Four drilled wells on this island. Two were drilled to between 75 and 100 feet deep, where the drills 
yyere blocked by slanting fissures. The other wells p.re about 200 feet deep and yield salty water. 

g Wellis loOfeet west of well No. 56. 

ti Wellis 300 feet northwest of well No. £6. 

s" Dri.ne.dln 1902; yielded 10 gallons a minute of fair water at first. The yield soon dropped to 4^ gallons 
a minute, and in four years to 3i gallons a minute; 175 feet from shore. 

/Drilledin 1904; 150 feet southwest of well No. 61 and 125 feet from shore. Water is salty. 

K Yielded 18 gallons a minute at a deptli of 360 feet at first, but after four months it failed. Deepening 
to 4.60 feet gave a yield of 1 or 2 gallons. Seventy-five pounds of 70 per cent dynamite was exploded at the 
bottom of the well, but v,-ith no effect. A second shot of 50 pounds brought a yield of 10 gallons a minute. 
This water was fresh at first, but later beeame brackish. Well is 220 feet south of well No. 61. 

i Well is 175 feet from shore and 100 feet south of well No. 61. 

13 Well yields 1% gallons a minute at depth of 75 feet; 5 to 6 at deoth of 150 feet; 7i atdepthof 200 feet: 
and 8 to 10 at full depth of 410 feet. 

NEW CANAAN. 
AREA, POPULATIOX, AND INDUSTRIES. 

New Canaan, in Fairfield County, Conn., is one of the second tier 
of towns nortli of Long Island Sound. To the north is part of 
Westchester County, N. Y., on the w^est is the north part of Stam- 
ford, on the south is Darien, on the southeast Norwalk, and on the 



NEW CAN^sAjS'. <«> 

east Wilton. Silverinine Brook fonns part of the eastern boundary 
:nul liippowani River part of the western boundary. The total area 
ol" the town is 2o square miles, oi which 11 square miles, or 1-5 per 
cent, is wooded. The woods are for the most part in the valleys 
and on the steep slopes, whereas the broad hilltops and ridge crests 

are cleared. 

The territory which now constitutes New Canaan was taken from 
Stnmford nnd Norwalk in 1801 and incoriwrated as a separate town. 
Tw population in 1910 was 3,667. an increase of 701 from 1900. The 
boroufih of New Canaan had about 1,672 inhabitants. Th.e density 
of population of the town as a whole was 180 to tlie square nTile. 
The following table shows the population at each census and the per- 
centasje of change in the decade preceding: 

roi>ukitioii of -V«r CuHariH. h^lO-lUlO." 



Year. 


Pop-ala- 
tion. 


Percent ! 
of change. 


Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
ofcliango. 




1,59V 
1,689 




1S70 


2,479 
2,673 
2,701 
2,96S 
3,667 


-10 




+ 6 


ISSO 


+ 7 




1,830 : + 8 
2,217 +21 
2,600 +17 
2,771 + 7 


1S90 - 


+ 1 




ini'io 


+ 10 




WlO 


+ 24 


1S60 















a Conneetieut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 639. 

There has been growth in every decade except that from i860 to 
1870, when there was a decrease for which no explanation is appar- 
ent. The large increase from 1830 to 18,50 may be due in part to 
the opening of the New York & New Haven Railroad in 1819. The 
increase from 1890 to 1910 is presumably the result of the develop- 
ment of this region as a commuting residential district tributary 
to New York City. It is probable that this growth will continue, 
especially if a proposed railroad from Greenwich through the north 
i:)art of Stamford and New Canaan to Ridgefield and Danbury is 
constructed. At all events such a possibility must be borne in mind 
in planning future development and utilization of the ground and 
surface water resources of tlie region. 

The only built-up settlement in New^ Canaan is the borough of 
New Canaan, incorporated in 1889. There is about 70 miles of road 
in the town, which is in general well kept up. and there is a good 
deal of tar-bound macadam. New Canaan is reached by the electri- 
fied New Canaan branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford 
Railroad, which joins the main line at Stamford. Stages run be- 
tween New Canaan and Norwalk. There is a post office at the 
borough, and rural-delivery routes serve the outlying parts of the 






76 GEOUND WATER IN NOKWALK AND OTHEE AREAS, CONN. 

town. The principal industries are agriculture, the raising of nurs- 
ery stock, and the manufacture of shirts and overalls and of wire 

goods. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

New Canaan lies on an upland which is dissected by valleys 150 
to 200 feet deep that lead south-southwestward. The interstream 
spaces are broad ridges with gently rolling crests and steep flanks. 
The profile in figure 14 is drawn across the town a little north of the 
borough and shows the broad plateau cut b}?" the shallow valley of 
Fivernile Eiver. and bounded by the deeper valleys of Rippowam 
and Silvermine River. Formerly the surface was nearly level, but it 
has been tilted to the south-southeast. This tilting has established 
tlie general south-southeast courses of the rivers. Tributaries of 
Rippowam River drain about 5 square miles in the northwest corner 
of the tow^n and the headwaters of Noroton River 7 square miles in 
the southwest corner. A north-south strip 1 to 1^ miles wide through 



A 

^ ,JUppo..c^ River ^j^^.^f^ " ""-^TZ^V^"^ 



A 

SiLvermirbe 




Vertical scale twice the horizontal 



FiiiunK 14. — I'l-oflie ;u:j'oss New Canaan {A-A' on Pis. II and III), showing undulating 
plateau and the valleys cut below it. 

the middle of the town is tributary to Fivemile River, which rises 
within the town limits. A similar strip along the east boundary is 
drained by Silvermine River. Near the head of Fivemile River is 
the reservoir of the New Canaan AVater Co., and on Silvermine is 
the Grupe reservoir of the first taxing district of the city of Norwalk. 
The lowest points in New Canaan are those where Noroton and 
Fivemile rivers cross the boundary about 115 feet above sea level, in 
the southwest and southeast corners of the town. The highest point 
is near the middle of the north boundary and is 620 feet above sea 
level. There is thus a range of elevation of about 500 feet. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

ScMst and gnehs.—'Yh^ bedrocks which underlie New Canaan 
have been identified as belonging tb four formations.^ Underlying 
an area of 2 square miles in the northwest corner of the town is the 
Berkshire schist. It is a medium to dark gray well-banded schist, 
composed essentially of black mica and quartz with some garnet, 
feldspar, and other accessory minerals. The small mica scales have 

'^ Gregory, H. E., and Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geological map of Connecticut : 
eomaecticnt Geo!, and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 



NEW C^ANAAN. 77 

ill liirgi." part been seaiviiatcd and tiirnod parallel to one another, so 
tliat they form dark bands that allei-nate witli <]uartz bands and ii;ive 
the rock its fissile, schistose character. There are many thin veins 
ol' white and pink <>Tanitic material injected alonijj and across tlic 
chnivage planes. 

I'he bedrock of a circular area a mile in diameter in the north 
l)art of the borough and of an area half as laroe in the soutlieast 
corner of the town is the Danbnrv granodiorite gneiss. This gneiss 
is a moderately coarse igneous rock composed essentially of feldspar 
and quai-tz with black mica or hornblende or both. In this region 
there is a tendency for certain of the feldspar crystals to be larger 
than others and thus to give the rock a porphyritic character. Honi- 
blende is more abundant than elsewhere in the formation. Since its 
original consolidation from a state of igneous fusion, the rock has 
undergone metamorphism and has been changed to a gneiss. The 
gneissic texture is similar to the schistose texture of the Berkshire 
schist in character but is far less well developed. There is less mica, 
and the hornblende is less clea^able, so that tlie rock splits into 
thicker slabs and with more difficulty. 

An area of about a square mile in the southeast corner of the 
town is underlain by the Becket granite gneiss. According to 
Gregory,^ it Avas probably originally a 

yranite wliicli has been injected at different times and subjected to intense 
nietannn-pliisni while yet deeply buried within tlie earth. On this hypothesis 
the more granitoid phases are most like the original rock, and the schistose 
phases are most metamorphosed. The horublendic and granitic beds were 
intruded before or during the chief metamorpliic movement, and owe their 
position and alinement to the forces that produced tlie main foliation. Veins 
of quartz and pegmatite were intruded after most of the metamorphism had 
taken place, and certain intrusions indicate even a later stage of igneous 
activity. 

That it is of igneous origin, however, is not certain, for the evi- 
dence of its original character has been largely destroyed by meta- 
morphism. 

By far the greater part of the town is underlain by the Thomas- 
ton granite gneiss. It is a true granite in that the dominant min- 
erals are quartz, feldspar, and black mica, but like the other rocks 
of the region a gneissic texture has been imposed on it by meta- 
morphism, as is shown by the bands rich in dark mica which alter- 
nate with bands rich in light quartz and feldspar. Tn some places 
phenocrysts of feldspar, which give the rock a porphyritic character, 
are developed. The rock is light gray in general, but some parts 
have a pinkish tinge. 

- ^ Rice, W. N., and Gregory, II.. E., Manual of the geology of Connecticut: Connecticut 
Gcol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. G, p. CJ, 1906. 



78 GROUND WATER IN" jS^OSWALK AI->7D OTHER AREAS, CONlSr. 

The capacities of these four rock types for carrying water are 
about the same and may be discussed tog-ether. Because of their 
low ]3orosity there is no appreciable amount of interstitial water. 
The schists are probably a little more porous than the gneisses be- 
cause of the presence of thin flat openings between the flakes ol 
mica, but even this is inconsequential. The crustal disturbances to 
which this region has been repeatedly subjected have produced many 
joints: and fissures vfhich constitute an intricately interconnecting 
network of narrow but extensive channels. Other joints are due to 
shrinkage during the initial consolidation of the rock. When rain 
fails on the ground a portion of it is absorbed and slowly percolates 
downiward. Most of this vf ater, when it reaches the bedrock surface, 
will move approximately horizontally^ but some will find its way 
into the joint system. In the upper zones of the bedrock the fissures 
are far more abundant than at greater depths, where they tend to be 
closed by the weight of the overlying rock. The water in the joint 
system may be recovered hj drilled wells. It is highly probable 
that at any specific point one or more water-bearing fissures will 
be intersected before drilling beyond 250 to 300 feet. If lione is cut 
it is better to try again in a new place than to drill deeper,, for it ia 
far less probable that a fissure will be cut betvfeen 300 anel 600 feet 
in the old place. The depth of the drilled wells in New Canaan 
for which data were obtained averages 173 feet and ranges from 
86 to 300 feet. The yield of 14 wells averages 23 gallons a minute 
and ranges from 2 to 70 gallons. A few dug wells blasted down 
into rock also draw water from fissures, but they are not satisf actor;/ 
in general. The fissures very near the surface of bedrock are very 
apt to fail in drought, but the blasted cavity is of some value in that 
it acts as a reservoir and stores som.e water. 

Till. — Everywhere in New Canaan, except in parts of the valley 
floors and where ledges of rock outcrop, the bedrock is covered b}" 
a mantle of till. The depth to Ixedrock in 13 of the drilled wells 
tabulated below averages 37 feet and ranges from 7 to 79 feet. These 
fi^gures give some idea of the thickness of the till mantle. The till 
or boulder clay, or " hardpan " as it is locally called, is of glacial 
origin. The continental glacier which overrode this region from 
north to south plowed up and scraped away the soft rock and resid- 
ual soil and even removed some of the deeper unweathered rock. 
Projecting ledges and knobs of rock were torn away. The rock 
surface was smoothed, grooved, and polished by rock fragments em- 
bedded in the ice, and they in turn crushed, beveled, and polished 
one another. The resulting material, a heterogeneous mixture of 
pieces of rocks of many kinds and of all sizes from the very small 



NEW CANAAN. 



71) 



particles of rock flour up to bouKU'is weighiu^- se\eial tons, was 
plastered over the glaciated surface. Deposition was particularly 
ooucentrated iu depressions and against the slopes of Icnlges and 
sl.arp ridges. 

The intimate niixmg of particles that vary greatly in size makes 
Iho product low in porosity. There are no openings within the peb- 
blo^^ and boulders tliat could hold water, and the spaces between 
them are filled with smaller particles. Moreovei-. the presence of 
fhie material means that the spaces that do exist are very small. 
JJowever, there is a very appreciable pore space, and a considerable 
amount of rain water is absorbed and held. On account of the 
[small size of the pores the water is transmitted very slowly, but 
wells dug in till will obtain supplies that are as a rule fairly reliable. 
Sixty-five such wells were visited in September and October, lOK'), 
in New Canaan. The measurements made of the v:ells are tabulated 
on pages sL-»2. The following table sunuiiarizes the data : 

t<i!ininar[/ of iccUs lUcj in iill in .Ye/.- ('minai:. 



Total 
depth. 



Depth. 
;o "(Vater, 



Maxiniuu: 
Minimum 
Averas^o.. 



Feet. 



Feet. 
29.5 
5.2 
U.4 



Depth of 

vvater in 

well. 



F:Ct. 

23.8 
0.5 
h.'2 



The reliability of 51 of these wells was ascertained ; 33 were said 
to be nonf ailing and 18 to fail. The springs in the table on page 
83, with the exception of No. 56, are in till. 

Stratified <?r^/^.-^Stratified drift, which may replace till as the 
mantle rock, is found in New Canaan only in parts of the valley 
floors. The map (PL III) shows the areas of stratified drift along 
Rippowam, Fivemile, and Silvermine rivers. This type of de- 
po.sit has been formed by the action of running w-ater as is shown 
by the well-washed, vsorted, and stratified character of the material. 
The source of the material is in large part till, but a little of it has 
undoubtedly been derived directly from the bedrock. The agent 
has been for the most part the streams that now occupy the valleys. 
In other parts of the State large volumes of melt water, derived 
from the receding glacier, built up extensive deposits of stratified 
drift. How^ever, the questions of the precise source of the material 
and of the particular transporting agency are not essential to a 
consideration of the deposits as a source of ground water. The 
impoi-tant facts are its character and distribution. It is char- 






80 GEOUXD WATER IX XOEWALK AKD OTHEE AEEAS, CONN". 

acterized by sorting into distinct beds within which the particles 
are of relatively nniform size. Different beds and even adjacent 
beds are of very dissimilar coarseness. The absence of small 
particles from the interstices of the larger ones makes a very 
porous deposit capable of holding and rapidly transmitting a 
large amount of water, so stratified drift is an excellent source of 
ground water. Where the slopes are relatively steep the movement 
of water through stratified drift may be so rapid that wells in it 
may fail in dry seasons. No wells in stratified drift were ^dsited 
in New Canaan. Spring 56 (see map, PL II, and table, p. 83) is 
in stratified drift. 

QUALITY or GROUND WATER, 

The subjoined table gives the results of two analyses and three 
assays of samples of ground water collected in the town of New 
Canaan. The waters are low in mineral content except No. 68, 
which is moderately mineralized. Nos. 11, 18, and 62 are very soft; 
No. 35 is soft; and No. 68 is hard in comparison with other waters 
of this area, though it is not hard as rated by general standards. 
In so far as mineral content may detennine it, these waters are 
good for domestic use. All are good for boiler use except No. 68, 
which is rather high in scale-forming ingredients and is therefore 
rated as fair. The waters are calcium-carbSnate in type except 
Nos. 11 and 62, which are sodium-carbonate waters. 

Chemical composition and classification of ground wuters in New Canaan fi 

[Parts per million; collected Dec. 9, 1916; analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers and C. H. Kidwell. Numbers 
of analyses and assays correspond to those used on PI. II.] 



Silica (SiO;;) 

Iron (Fe) , 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magrnesiura (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K)<i . 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chloride radicle (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total dissolved solids at 180° C ... 

Total hardness as CaCOs 

Scale-forming constituents <i 

Foaming constituents d 



Chemical character 

Probability of corrosion f . 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic use . 



AnalTses. 6 



23 

.34 
6.7 
2.9 
11 

.0 
24 
16 
4.6 
12 
S5 
rf29 
48 
30 



35 



29 

.18 
14 
4.7 
15 

.0 

68 

13 

12 

1.9 

122 

d54 

78 

40 



Na-C03 Ca-COa 
(?) N 

Good. Good. 
Good. Good. 



Assavs. c 



62 



Trace. 



7. 

.0 
31 
9.0 

4.8 



d73 
28 
55 
20 

Ca-COs 
(?)^ 
Good. 
Good. 



12 

.0 
38 
7.0 
5.6 



d77 
22 
45 
30 

Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



0.78 



10 
10 
119 
12 
6.1 



dl70 
115 
140 
30 

Ca-COs 
(?) 
Fair. 
Good. 



« For location and other descriptive information see pp. 81-83. 

ti For methods used in analyses and aecuraey of results see pp. 52-60. 

e .Approximations; for methods used in assays and reliability of results see pages 52-60. 

<i Computed. 

« Based on computed quantity; (?)=corrosioa uncertain; N = noneorrosive. 



NEW CANAAN. 



81 



ruBT-ic A\ A ir.i; surrLY. 

The New Canaan AA'ator Co. has supplied residents of the vilhif^o 
with water since 1895. The company has a I'eservoir of 70.000.000 
j>:allons capacity on Fiveiuile River foi-med by a core-wall dam aboiifc 
45 feet hi^h and 400 feet long. The water is distribnted from the 
re.servoir by gravity through 91 miles of main pipe, 52 hydrants, and 
512 service taps. The pressure in the vilhige is about 50 pounds to 
the square inch. About 2,000 people are supjdied, and consume 
about 250.000 gallons a day on the average. Tlie water is filtered, 
and occasional analyses are made.^ 

If the demands on the system increase very greatly they will b© 
met only with great difficulty, for most of the drainage basins in 
the region are already in use or their use has been planned for. 
Good sup]:)lies could probably be developed in the deposits of strati- 
fied drift along Fivemile River. 

RECORDS OF WELI.S AND SPRINGS. 
Wells (lug In till in Xcic Canaan. 



No. 
on 

ri. 
II. 



Eliswortli Waters. 
Carl Sc'lineider 



Topocraphip 
situation. 



Elpva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 



Slope 

do 

do 

do 

do 



F.C. Fladd. 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



do.. 

do.. 

Plateau . 
Slope.... 

do.. 

do.. 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



Town Farm do 



35 I A. S. Jerrv. 



do.. 

do.. 

Hilltop. 
Slope. . . 

.do. 

.do. 



Hilltop. 
Slope... 



Hilltop.. 
Plain... 
Plateau . 
Slope. . . 

do.. 

do.. 



Fat. 
3(iO 
340 
300 
3(;0 
425 



420 
375 
4<i5 
485 

470 
405 
350 
470 
490 
490 

455 
465 
380 

405 



300 
410 
430 
250 
260 
2f>0 
370 



.3(15 
300 
300 
285 
305 
315 



Total 
depth. 



Fc(K 
23.4 
14.3 
15.1 
26.9 
18. 



22.1 

in. 4 
17. G 
17.8 

32.5 
21.2 
10. 6 
14.9 
10.9 
12.5 

17.2 
14.8 
13.0 
25.1 



28.8 
31.1 
15.8 
19.2 
15.8 
13.9 
20.7 

21.9 

25.9 
10.1 
15.9 
29.0 
10.8 
20.4 



Depth 

to 
water 



Fc<t. 
18.3 
12.7 
12.1 
19.0 
13.6 



19. S 
12.5 
7.6 
13.9 

22.4 

7.7 
8.7 
14.4 
8.9 
9.3 

14.0 
10.6 
12.5 
17.1 



27.0 
2i). 5 
11.3 
17.0 
12.4 
10. 
13.4 

16.7 

19.0 
0.8 

11.4 
5.2 
6.2 

17.7 



Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 



Fert. 
5.1 
1.6 
3.0 
7.0 
5.0 



2.3 
3.9 
10.0 
3.9 

10.1 
13.5 
7.9 
0.5 
2.0 
3.2 

3.2 
4.2 
1.1 
8.0 



1.8 
1.6 
4.5 
2.2 
3.4 
3.3 
7.3 

5.2 

6.9 
3.3 
4.5 
23.8 
4.6 
2.7 



P.iS. 



P.emarks. 



Windlas"; ri<; ... 
C)ne-bueket rig . 

Sweep rig 

House pump 

Tv.'O-bucket rig 

and hou^e 

pump. 

Drain pump 

do 

do 

Windlass rig 



do 

Hou.se pump 

Drain pump 

Windlass rig 

Two-bucket rig.. 
AMndlass rig ... . 



Two- bucket rig.. 

Sweep rig 

One-bueket rig.. 
Two-bucket ng 

and house 

pump. 

Windlass rig 

do 

Two-bucket rig.. 

do 

Windlass rig 

do 

Sweep rig and 

house pump. 
do 

Chain pump 

House pump 

do 

do 

Windlass rig 

do 



Xonfailing. 

1)0. 

Do. 
Do. 
Fails. Blasted 
in( rock. 



Fails. 

Nonfailiug. 
Fails. For anal- 
ysis see p. 80. 

Nonfai!ing. 

Fails. 

Do. 
Fails. Rock bot- 
tom. 
Fails. 

Do. 

Fails.a 



Nonfailing. 
Fails. 

Nonfailing. 
Fails. 
Do. 

Nonfailing. 

Fails. For anal- 
ysis see p. SO. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Fails. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 



a Well is 15 feet in ledge. Cost about $300 to deepen it 8 feet. 
' Rppt. Connecticut Public L'tilities Commission, 1917. 
1:34444 °— 20 6 



82 GEOUIS'D WATER IN NOEWALK A^^'TD OTHER AREAS, COL^N. 

Wcllii diKj In till ill Ncio Caiiumi — Continued. 



No. 
on 
PI. 

n. 



Owner. 



C. F. Stevens. 



J. M. Wassing. 



Topograph!; 
situation. 



Slope . . . 
Plateau . 
Slope. .. 

do.. 

do.. 



..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 



do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Knoll.. 

do. 

Slope. . 



.do. 



do. 

do. 

do. 

Plain.. 



Slope . . . 

do.. 

do.. 

School Hilltop. 

Slope... 



Stephen Hovt's 
Sons Co. , 



Swate - 

Slope . - 

do- 

do. 



Eleva- 






Depth 


tion 

above 

sea 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 
to 

water. 


ol 

water 

in 


level. 






well. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


320 


40.5 


24.3 


16.2 


325 


24.9 


16.2 


8.7 


210 


15.9 


13.2 


2.7 


170 


16.5 


13.5 


3.0 


150 


23.3 


22.0 


1.3 


400 


27.4 


14.0 


13.4 


345 


10.3 


7.4 


2.9 


280 


8.3 


5.9 


2.4 


270 


16.8 


12.5 


4.3 


Z75 


27.0 


17. 3 


9.7 


255 


13.1 


10.3 


2.8 


240 


23.5 


14.7 


8.8 


200 


15. 


13.4 


2.2 


240 


7.8 


5.9 


1.9 


175 


25.5 


20.0 


5.5 


206 


25.1 


20. 5 


4.6 


180 


10.0 


9.5 


6.5 


180 


28. 2 


21.4 


6.8 


190 


24.3 


19.7 


4.6 


230 


' 29.5 


10.8 


10.8 


185 


22.0 


20.7 


1.3 


200 


13.9 


11.6 


2.3 


260 


21.2 


16.8 


4.4 


200 


16. O' 


15.2 


1.7 


190 


21.0: 


18.8 


2.2 


180 


12.2 


9.4 


2.8 


300 


22.1 


17.8 


4.3 


320 


18.1 


11.2 


6.4 


320: 


20. 


6.0 


13.0 


260 


10.4 


7.7 


2.7 


230 


25.6 


23.2 


2.4 


310 


20. 


15.1 


4.9 



rCia. 



Windlass rig... 
Two-bucket rig. 
Windlass rig . . . 
Two-bucket rig. 
Two-bucket rig 

and house 

pump. 

do 

Two-bueliet rig. 
Chain pump. .'. 
Windlass rig . . . 
Two-bucket rig. 
Chain pump . . . 
Two-bucket rig. 

do 

Windlass rig . . . 
Two-bucket rig. 
Win<ilass rig.. . 
One-bucket rig. 
Two-bucket rig 

an-d house 

IDump. 
do 



Windlass rig 

do 

Two-bucket rig.. 

Coimterbalan c- 
ing and air- 
pressure S3-S- 
tem. 

Windlass rig 

do 

do 

Windlass rig 

Two-bucket rig 
and house 
piunp. 
(") 

Sweep rig 



Tie marks. 



Windlass rig . . . 
Two-bucket rig. 



rioufailing. 

Do. 

Do. 

■ Do. 



Do. 

Nonfailing 
Do. 
Do. 



Do. 
Do. 



Fails. 

N onfall ina 



Nonfaiiing. For 
assf.y SCO p. 80. 

Fails. 

Do. 
Nonfaiiing. 



Fails. 
Nonfaiiing. 



Dc. 

Nonfaiiing. Eock 

bottom . 

Nonfaiiing. 

Do. 



a Pumped by a steam-driven pump. If 8,000 gallons arc pinnped the level is depressed about S feet, but 
it regains its former position in about six hours. The inflow is therefore equivalent to about 1,300 gallons' 
an hour, or 20 to 25 gallons a minute. 

Drilled ifclU in J^cic Canaan. 



No. 

on 

PI. II. 



Owner. 



Topographic 
situation. 



Ele- 
vation 
above 

sea 
level. 



Total 
depth. 



Depth 
to 



Depth 
to 

water. 



Diam- 
eter. 



Yield 
per 
min- 
ute. 



Ivemarks. 



9 

11 .Y 

13 

18 



Chapelle 

S. W. Wakeman.. 

F.C. Fladd 

George E, Kruger. 
D.H. Hamilton.. 



Plateau. 
Slope. . . 
.....do... 

do. . 

do.. 



George Brown do. 

Jacobs & Wolf I do- 



Peter B . Chick Plam .-. 

John B . Miller I Slope . . 



Feel. 
415 
470 
485 
505 
525 



170 
170 
170 
290 
205 



Feet. 



Feet. 



Feet. 



Inches. Galls. 



162 
105 
199J 



300 
205 



121 

88 



Water from 
gneiss. For 
assay s ee 
p. 80. 



Do. 



NORWALK. 

Drilhd irclls in \iir CuiKum — (_'ouiiiiui.'il. 



83 



X... 
on 

ri.ii. 


0\>iier. 


Topogrnphic 
situation. 


Klt^ 
vat ion 
above 

sea 
level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
loek. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Diam- 

et er. 


Yield 
per 

min- 
ute. 


Hemarks. 


(•') 


S 1 iirjris Coffin 


Hill 


Flit. 


Fttl. 
1.50 
2.')3 
153 
150 
ISG 
200 
248 
150 
130 
104 
253 
120 


Feet. 

. 5ti 
50 
(iii 
20 
14 
49 
35 


Feet. 
4 
8 
20 

4 


Indue. 
6 

(> 
t) 


Gallx. 
18 
40 
70 
40 
G 
2 
...... 


' 


-Mrs. W. E.C.Bradley. 
Tangart 


do 

jSlope 






(„{ 


Miss C. .\. BlLss 

Theoiiore Teiiill 

Dr. V. 11. AVilliams... 
Jlrs. l>.lJ..Vle.\ander.. 
L. P. Child 


Hill 






(a) 


. .. do 




9 ;. 

5 (i 
15 5 
04 




(a) 
(") 


do 

Itidge ..... 






HiU 






(<') 


H. Fi.sher estate 

(Iray Bros 


Kidue 






(" ) 


Slope 




21 


30 
11 
25 





15 

40 




(i) 


Mrs. A.M. Bradlev... 








(') 


Ct race Church 


Hili 



















oNot plotted on map. Data from Gregorv, H. K., rndergroimd-water resources of Connecticut: U. S. 
(^eol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 82, 1909. 

Not plotted on map. Idem, p. 88. 

c Not plotted on map. I'ata from Gregory, H. E., Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United 
States; Connecticut: I'. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply I'aper 102, p. 128, 190-t. 

Spiin[/s in Xeir Vanaun. 



No. 

on 

PL II. 


Owner. 


Topograph i:- 
situation. 


Eleva- 
tion 
above 
sea level. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Yield 

per 

minute. 


Remar; s. 


15 


J. Busslinger 


Slope 


Fat. 
390 
430 
290 
275 
180 
270 


°F. 


Gallons. 


Pumped to house. 


24 


do 


51 
54 
49 
51 
54 


2 

1' 
15+ 


31 




Footofclitf 




32 


A.C. Clarkson 


Air-pressure system. 


56 


Foot 01 terrace. . . . 
Slope 


78 















KORWALK. 



AREA, POPULATION. AND INDUSTRIES. 



Norwalk, in Fairfield Coiintj^ is on Long Island Sound. 32 miles 
"west of New Haven, 40 miles east of New^ York, and '20 miles south 
of Danbury. Norwalk Eiver, which rises in Eidgeheld, flows through 
the middle of the town. Fivemile Eiver in part follov/s the west 
boundarv and in part lies half a mile east of it. The area of the part 
of the town on the mainland is about 23 square milas, of which about G 
square miles or 25 per cent is A^ooded. The woodlands are most 
abundant in the west and north parts of the town. The offshore 
islands aggregate an area of a third of a square mile. 

The territory of Norwalk was purchased from the Indians and a 
town was incorporated in 1051. The original town included more ter- 
ritory, but from time to time parts have been separated to make ne'w 
towns. In 1801 NeAv Canaan was made of territory ttiken in part 
from Norwalk and in part from Stamford. In 1802 Wilton was 
taken from Norwalk, and in 1835 i^art of Norwalk was combined with 



84 GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

parts of Fairfield and Weston to form Westport. The city of South 
Norwalk was incorporated in 1870' and the city of Norwalk in 1893. 
Since then they have been combined and made into one city coter- 
minous with the town but divided into five taxing districts. The first 
district Avas formerly the city of I^^orwalk, the second district was 
formerlji^ the city of South Norwalk, and the third district was 
formerly the fire district of East Norwalk. The fourth district com- 
prises these three districts, and the fifth district comprises the out- 
lying- parts of the town. 

The population in 1910 was 24,211, an increase of 4,279 over the 
1900 population. The population is concentrated in the city, but if 
distributed over the whole town would average about 1,070 to the 
square mile. In 1910 there were 6,954 people in Norwalk and 8,968 
in Soutli Norwalk. The following table gives the population at each 
census since 1756 and the percentage of change in each census period : 

PopiiTatio)) of NonraJk, 17-)6 to 1910." 



Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


Year. 


Popula- 
Tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


1756 


3,050 

4,388 

4,051 

(i) 

5,146 

2,983 

3, 004 

3,792 




1840 


3, 863 
4,651 
7,582 
12,119 
13,956 
17, 747 
19, 932 


+ 2 


1774 


6+44 
c_ 8 


1850 


+20 


1782 


186T. 


+63 


1790 


1870 


+60 


1800. . . . 


«+27 


1880. .. 


+ 15 


1810 


1890 


+ 27 


1820 


+ 1 
+ 26 


1900 


+ 12 


1830 


1910 


24,211 


+ 21 







o Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 040. 

*> For a period ot 18 years. 

c For a period of 8 years. 

d Norwalk was not counted separately but was included with Stamford and Greenwich at tliis census. 

« For a period of 20 years. 

There has been growth in each period except that from 1771 to 
1782. In the decade from 1830 to 1840 there was enough increase 
to a little more than offset the loss of population by the cession of 
part of Westport in 1835. In 1849 the New York & New Haven 
Railroad was opened, and in 1852 the Danbury & Norwalk Railroad. 
In the two decades from 1850 to 1870 Norwalk nearly trebled in popu- 
lation as manufactures became well established. The population 
continued to increase steadily and doubled between 1870 and 1910. 
It is to be expected that the growth will continue. 

In addition to Norwalk, South Norwalk, and East Norwalk, which 
are built up without break, there are four small settlements in the 
town. Rowayton, in the southwest corner of the town, is in large 
part a summer settlement. West Norwalk is on Fivemile Brook just 
south of the New Canaan town line. Winnipauk is a small manu- 
facturing village on Norwalk River 1^ miles north of Norwalk. 
Cranberry is a little settlement near the northeast corner of the toAvn. 



NOiaVALK. 85 

The main line of the New '^ oik, New Ilaxon «.'v; Tlniirord IJaili'Oiid 
crosses the town near tlie shore oi' Lono; Island Sound and has sta- 
tions at Rowayton, Sonth Xorwalk, and East Xorwalk. Tlie Dan- 
bur}^ branch, connectino; Sonth XorAA'alk Avith Danbury, lias stations 
also at Norwalk and AVinnipank. Trolleys connect South Xorwalk 
with Darien and Stamford by way of Rowayton; East Xorwalk, 
Saupitnck, AVestport. and Bridgeport; Roton Point; (Jregory Point; 
and Xorwalk and AVinnipank. A trnnk-line State highw^ay con- 
nects with points east and west along the shore, and another follows 
Xorwalk River to Ridgefield and to Danbnry. There is automobile- 
stage service to Xew Canaan from Xorwalk. Post offices are main- 
tained at Xorwalk, South Xorwalk, and Rowayton, with carrier 
serAice in Xorwalk. South Xorwalk, and East Xorwalk. The out- 
lying districts are served by rural delivery. 

The principal industries of Xorwalk are the manufacture of cor- 
sets, shirts, silks, paper and paper goods, brass, rugs. hats, hardware 
and machinery, boots and shoes, Avoolen goods, lace, automobile tires, 
motor trucks, engines, stores, and stone and earthen Avare; ship- 
building: oyster fishing: and agriculture in the outlying districts. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

Norwalk is in that portion of the Avestern highlands of Connect icr.t 
that lies along the shore of Long Island Sound. The inland portion 
of the province is a plateau sloping gently to the south-southeast, 
underlain by intensely folded, crushed, and injected rocks. The 
plateau has been deeply trenched by streams so that, although the 
hills and ridges rise to concordant altitudes, the topography is 
I'ugged. At the seaAvard margin these features persist but in a re- 
duced degree. Formerly the land stood higl.er relatiA^e to sea level 
and X'orAvalk was Avell inland, and under such conditions it dcA^eloped 
the topographic features characteristic of the present inland. Subse- 
quent depressing of the land has droAvned the XorAvalk coast. Arms 
of the sea extend up the A^alleys making bays of the shorter ones and 
an estuary of the valley of Xorwalk River. The ridges between 
these droAvned A^alleys are noAv peninsulas. In the heads of the bays 
and estuaries the Avater has but little motion, and deposits of mud 
haA'e been made. These are the salt marshes that form so prominent 
a feature of the topography of the Connecticut shore. The greatest 
elevation in the town, 340 feet above sea leA^el, is on the divide be- 
tAveen Silvermine and Xorwalk riA^^ers at the AVilton toAvn line. 

FiA'emile Ri\'er and XorAvalk River are through- fiow^ing streams 
Avhieh Avith their tributaries drain the Avest and central parts of the 
town. On Silvermine RiA'er. Avhich enters Xorwalk River a little 



86 GEOUND WATER 1:^- jSTOEWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONH. 

beloAY Winnipauk, and on Xorwalk Eiver there are se\'eral small 
water powers deveiopecL Tlie northeast corner of the town is drained 
hy the headwaters of Stony Brook which crosses into Westport and 
joins Saugatuck iii^'er. There are a few short brooks which drain 
parts of the shore zone and flow through salt marshes into the Sound. 

W A TER -BE ARIN G FOR M ATIO X S , 

/Schist and gneiss. — There are three bedrock formations in Nor- 
walk^— the Danbury granodiorite gneiss, which underlies a strip 2 
miles long west of Fivemile E-iver ; the Becket granite gneiss, under- 
lying the rest of the elevated territory west of Norwalk Ei^er ; and 
the Thomaston granite gneiss, underlying the south margin of the 
town and most of the part east of Norwalk River. There is also an 
area of Becket granite gneiss half a mile wide and extending a mik> 
along the middle of the Westport boundary. 

The Becket granite gneiss underlies much of western Connecticut, 
and is composed of feldspar, quartz, and black mica which are con- 
centrated in contrasting light and dark laj^ers. These give the rock 
the banded and cleavable character typical of gneisses. There is 
some doubt as to Avhether this rock was originally an igneous or 
sedimentary rock. The minerals are those defining the granite family 
of igneous rocks, but certain phases are so highly quartzose as to 
suggest sandstone. It is possible that a very minor part of the rock is 
of sedimentary origin but that an extreme amount of igneous material 
has been added so as to give it a dominantl}' igneous character. It 
is a resistant rock and forms a high ridge between Fivemile Eiver 
and Norwalk Eiver. This ridge is bounded on the west by a valley 
cut in large part in Danbury granodiorite gneiss, and on the south 
and east by a lower area of the Thomaston granite gneiss. 

The essential constituents of the Danbury granodiorite gneiss are 
quartz, feldsi:>ar, and mica or hornblende or both. Where tlie mica is 
the chief dark mineral the rock approaches a true granite in com- 
position, but where hornblende is dominant it becomes a granodiorite. 
The granodiorite seems to be the variety found most commonly in 
the southern part of Fairfield County, according to Gregory.^ Cer- 
tain of the feldspar crystals tend to be much larger than the other 
crystals, so the rock has a porphyritic texture on which mashing has 
superposed a gneissoid texture. 

The only essential differences between the Thomaston granite 
gneiss and the Danbury granodiorite gneiss are that the former con- 
tains little or no hornblende and the porphyritic texture is less 

1 Gregory, H. E., ami Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geological map of Connecticut : 
Connecticut Geol. and Xat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 

= Gregory, U. E., and Rice. W. N., Manual of the geology of Connecticut : Connecticut 
Geol. and Nat. Flist. Survey Bull. 6, p. 108, 1906. 



NORWALK. 



87 



pvoiuinent. Both are probably younger than the lieckel jirf'.nhe 
gneiss, lor they have been altered les.s by metamorphinnu 

The capacities of the three types of bedrock for carrying N\ater are 
substantially the same. Igneous rocks have only negligible amounts 
of pore bpace. Moreover, the effect of dynamic metamorphism is to 
reduce the porosity still more. Therefore we expect to hud and 
actually do fuid no appreciable amounts of interstitial >vater in these 
rocks. It is possible that the minute flat openings betvveen mica 
ilakes in the more schistose phases may contain a little water, but 
the.-e openings arc so small and circvdation is so retarded by friction 
that no valuable supply of water can be obtained from them. Open- 
ings of another kind do exist in these rocks and are capable of taking 
in. transmitting, and again giving out some ground water. These 
are the rather extensive joints and fissures formed in part by shrink- 
age of the rock and in part by the mechanical forces which have acted 
on the rocks. They fonn a very complicated network of intercon- 
necting fissures better developed near the surface of the bedrock than 
in depth. The base of the overlying mantle of unconsolidated rock 
is saturated in most places with water. This water, derived pri- 
marily by absorption of rain, works its way through and fills the 
network of fissures and may be recovered by means of drilled Avells. 
Detailed data concerning a number of such wells in Xorwalk are 
«jii\ en in the table on page 94:. The following table summarizes these 

data : 

^^luiiiiinrii of ihiUcd ireUs in XonraJk. 



Maxiniiim. 
Miniiniim. 

Average... 



Total 


Depth to 


Depth to 


depth. 


rock. 


water. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


250 


12 


20 


45 


SO 





166 


35 


12 



Yield in 
gallous 

per 
miniito. 



7//7,_Tliere are two types of mantle rock in Xorwaliv from which 
water is obtained— till and stratified drift. In addition there are the 
deposits of the salt marshes and beacli sands, which would give only 
salt water. Well No. 95 (see map, PL II) is of this type. 

The till, which is also called boulder clay and " hardpan/' overlies 
the bedrock of the more elevated portions of the town. The name 
'^ hardpan " is descriptive of the physical properties which make it 
difficult to excavate. The till consists of an intimate and thoroughly 
heterogeneous mixture of glacial debris, which includes fragments of 
all conceivable sizes and shapes derived from all the varieties of rock 
overridden by the ice. Boulders, cobbles, and pelibles torn and 
scraped off the ledges were carried along by the ice sheet. They were 



o8 GEOUXD WATER IX ISTOE WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONISI'. 

rubbed against one another and polished, grooved, and broken. 
Eventually they were embedded in a matrix composed in part of 
their minute fragments, in part of scrapings from the bedrock, and 
in part of the soil which had covered the region in preghxcial time. 
The weight of the overlying ice sheet helped to compact the deposit. 
There are, however, manj^ minute pores in the till, and it is capable 
of absorbing considerable amounts of rain water, which percolates 
downward until it reaches the surface of the bedrock. Then part 
of it may enter the joints of the rock, and part of it may move more 
or less horizontally along the rock surface. Water may be recovered 
from the till by means of dug wells into which it will slowly seep. 
The most abundant supplies are found in a zone a few^ feet thick 
just above the bedrock or in lenses of partly washed material which 
is more porous. Sixty-nine wells dug in till were visited in Norwalk 
early in October, 1916. Two were found to be dry, and 13 more were 
said to fail. The dependability of 10 could not be ascertained, but 
the remaining 41 were said to be nonfailing. The data collected con- 
cerning these wells are given in detail in the table on pages 92-93, and 
are summarized in the following table : 

Sinnmarif of uyells duff in fill in Nnrtralk. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth to 
water. 


Depth of 
water. 




Feet. 
40.1 

8.4 
19.4 


Feet. 
29.9 
5.3 
15.0 


Feet. 
13.8 


Minimum 


.9 




4.2 







^Stratified r/H/Y.— Deposits of stratified drift are found in the val- 
leys of the streams of Norwalk and are shown on the map (PL II). 
Most of the deposits are narrow, but in the valley of Norwalk River 
below Winnipauk and in the vallej'' connecting Cranberry and Nor- 
walk there are wider areas. At the seaward margin these deposits 
blend into the salt-marsh deposits. For the most part they are 
.stream deposits, but some of the more southerly stretches may be 
beach sands and gravels. Whether of marine or fluviatile origin, 
these deposits differ from the till described above in that they are 
well washed and sorted and are laid in separate beds. The elimina- 
tion of smaller particles from the chinks between the larger ones 
makes stratified drift highly porous, so that it absorbs and transmits 
more watei'. Unless unfavorably situated, as, for example, near the 
edge of a terrace, wells in stratified drift yield good supplies of 
water. Measurements of 24 such wells in Norwalk were made and 
are given in the table on page 93. The reliability of 19 of these 
wells was ascertained. Only two were said to fail. The data con- 



X or. WALK. 



89 



coniiiiir (lie (l(>pflis of tliesc Avolls aro Mimmari/cd in the followinj^ 
tal.U-:' 

Siiiiiiiiinii (if irclls (fiiff ill .stratified drift in \orinill,-. 





Tol al 


Depth to 
wilier. 


Depth of 
water. 


Afaximiim 


Feel. 
29.0 

7.7 
1S..S 


Fed. 

5.3 

1(1. 4 


Fffi. 
■t.O 


Miiiiuium 


1 


A vet uj,'u 


1'. 4 







«^)i:.\LnY OF <;i;oiM) watku. 

The subjoined table gives the results of two analyses and three 
assays of samples of ground water collected in Xorwalk in December, 
U)U). All are low in mineral content except No. -ilA, which is moder- 
atel}^ mineralized. Nos. i? and 4TA are soft waters, and the other 
three are verA* soft. All are acceptable for domestic use so far as 
their mineral content and chemical character are concerned. Xo. 
iTA will give a little trouble with formation of scale if used in 
Ijoilersj but the rest are classed as good for boiler use. Xo. 47 is from 
a well drilled into gneiss and situated very close to the dug well 
in till from which Xo. 4TA was obtained. A comparison of the two 
analj'ses will show that because of the minute character of the par- 
ticles composing the till, greater opportunity is given for the ground 
water to take mineral matter into solution. The waters are sodium 
carbonate in type except Xo. 47, which is a calcium-carljonate water. 



Cucniicdl roiitpositioii and classification of (jround tratcr-s in Xonralk." 

[Parts per milUon; collected Dec. 9. lOltJ; analyzed by Alfred A. Chamber? and C. H. Kidwtll. Numbers 
ol analyses and assays correspond to those used on 11. 11.] 



Snica(Si0,,) 

Iron(Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Ms;) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K)« 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle { HCO3) 

SiUphate radicle ( SO4) 

Chloride radicle CCl) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total dissolved solids at 180° C. . 

Totalhardness as CaCO., 

Scale-forminj; constituents f 

Foaming constituents « 



Chemical character 

Probability of corrosion/. 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic use. 



Analyses.'' 



18 

.90 
17 
3.7 
7.3 
.0 
44 
29 
5.1 
Trace. 
101 
c58 
74 
20 

Ca-COa 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



21 

11 

2.j 
.0 
127 

].j 

22 

1.7 

180 

«98 

110 

U8 

Na-COs 
N 

Fair. 
Good. 



Trace. 



f 03 
17 
40 
20 

Na-COa 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



11 

.0 
41 

s.o 
1;. 1 



f S2 
2S 



30 



Na-COs 

N 

Good. 

Good. 



«120 
42 
05 
00 

Na-COj 

N 

Good. 

Good. 



" Fnrlocatioji and other descriptive information sec pp. 92-94. 

'' For methods u.sedin analyses and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 

' Appro.ximations: for methods used in assays and reliability of results see pp. 52-0<l. 

d Collected Dec. 1, I9u;. 

f Computed. 

/ Based on computed quantity; (?)=corrosion uncertain, N=noucorrosive. 



VO GEOUiS^D Vv'ATER IIS^ jSTOEWALK Aj^D OTHER AEEAS^ CONE". 

PUBLIC Wx^TEK SUPPLIES. 

Separate waterworks are maintained by Norv/alk and South 
Norwalk. The Xorwalk system, operated by the incorporated first 
taxing district, was started in 18T2. There are three storage 
reservoirs on Silvermine River, and a distributing reservoir of 
4,500,000 gallons capacity in the city at an elevation of 197 feet 
above sea level. The lowest of the storage reservoirs, known as tlie 
Grupe reservoir, is in the northeast corner of the town, of New 
Canaan. It is formed by a stone dam 250 feet long and 28 feet 
high, v/hicli stores 62,000,000 gallons. Its elevation is 297 feet 
a,bove sea level. The Brown reservoir, a quarter of a ruile north 
of the Nev7 York State line, has a capacity of 201,000,000 gallons. 
The dam is of the core-wall type, 1,300 feet long, 43 feet high, and 
has a spillwa}' elevation of 420 feet abova sea level. The Scott 
reservoir, IJ miles north of the State line, with its spillway 500 feet 
above sea level, has a capacity of 58,000,000 gallons. The dam of 
this reservoir is 150 feet long and 25 feet high and is built of stone. 
The V7ater is distributed by gravity tlirough 44. miles of mains to 
229 hydrants and 2,250 service taps. The pressure is from 60 to 80 
pounds to the square inch. The consumption is said by the com- 
missioners to average 2,500,000 gallons a day. It is said that \\e\r 
measurement, the records of which have been lost, indicated an 
average discharge of 10,000,000 gallons a day for Silvermine River. 
The area of the tributary drainag'e basin is about 10 square miles. 
The water is treated in a liquid chlorine purification plant at the 
Grupe reservoir.^ 

The South Norwalk waterworks,^ which also serve East Nor- 
walk, are operated by the second taxing district of the city. Con- 
struction was -begun in 1875, and later in that year service v/as 
commenced. About 189 mains were laid across the river to East 
Worwalk. There are at present four reservoirs and a fifth is 
planned. All are in the town of Wilton. 

Silvermine reservoir (No. 1) is on a small tributary of Silvermine 
River, near the southwest corner of Wilton. The overflow is at an 
elevation of 223 feet above sea level. It has an area of 9 acres and a 
capacity of 12,000,000 gallons. This reservoir is no longer in use 
except in emergencies, as it is below the level of the filtration plant. 
A mile farther up the same stream is the dam of the Wilton reser- 
voir (No. 2) with its spillway 266 feet above sea level. This reservoir 
has an area of 135 acres and a capacity of 500,000,000 gallons and is 

^ Ora.1 communication from commissioners. 

2 Second Taxing District of tlie City of Norwalk Sixth Ann. Rept., 1919. 



NOin\ALK. 91 

the largest of the system. Near its lower oiul it is crossed bv a gravel 
causeway Avhich elTetts a j)aiiial liltratioii of the water. A short 
distance above the Wilton reservoir is the Huckleberry reser\oir 
(No. :'.)• It lias an area of 2V) acres and a capacity of 1C)lMJ()-I,0'»() 
gallons, and its spillway is 327 feet above sea level. 

On a stream Mowing through North "Wilton and aljout midway 
between North AVilton and AVilton is the North Wilton leserxoir 
(No. 4). It covers only 3 acres and has a capacity of only 
2,000,000 gallons. This reservoir is used merely to divert water to 
the Wilton reservoir to which it is connected by a large pipe line. 
Its spillway is 302 feet above sea level. A fifth reservoir is planned 
on this stream. It will have a capacity of 800.000,000 gallons, an 
area of 110 acres, and a spillway elevation of 100 feet above sea level. 

Just below the Wilton reservoir is a double sand Hltration plant 
built to eliminate objectionable odor-producing and taste-producing 
organisms. The primary filter consists of five roofed concrete coui- 
i)artments, each covering about 11,000 square feet. At the bottom 
are lateral lines of 10-inch split vitrified tile tributary to a large 
central effluent channel. The underdrains are covered with 18 inches 
of graded gravel, above which is 3 feet D inches of sand Avith an 
etfective size of 0.35 to 0.38 millimeter. Before entering the primary 
filters the water is aerated by running it through a steel box 9 feet 
3 inches long by G feet 6 inches v/ide and 4 feet deep, in the bottom 
of which are (>,836 holes three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. In 
a drop of about 3^ feet the streams of water twist and break and the 
water becomes thoroughly aerated. 

From the primary filter the water passes through Venturi meters, 
one for each bed, whieh record the rate of filtration. The water is 
then run through a secondary aeration l)ox and a secondary filter. 
The construction of these is the same as in the primary set. except 
tha.t there is only one filter bed. The primary filtration effectually 
eliminates the organic matter, and the secondary filtration the objec- 
tionable mineral matter (iron and manganese). The daily average 
of the primary filters was 2,540,233 gallons for the yeixv ending May 
1, 1919. The beds were run 18 days on the average betvreen clean- 
ings, but the time varied wath tlie season of the year from 9 to 51 
days. The secondary filter was run at a rate about four times as 
high and with a longer interval between cleanings. 

The water is distributed by gravity through 49 miles of main 
l.'i])e to 266 hydrants and 2,874 house taj^s. Tlie domestic consump- 
tion is about 130 gallons per capita per day, but this is increased by 
the consumption in factories, hotels, and other establishments to 
about 190 gallons a day. This consumption is excessive, and the 



92 



GROUND WATER IIT iS^ORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN, 



Avater Uised by the 14,000 consumers could by metering be made to 
suffice for 20,000 people. The projected reservoir, the site and rights 
for which have already been procured, will provide water enough for 
a population of 60,000. 



RECORDS OF WELLS. 



WcJifi (Jug in till in Noriralk. 



No. 



42 

43 

44 
45 
47A 



57 

58 
60 
60A 
61 



Owner. 



W. S. Stewart... 



J. R. Conuor. 



Topo- 

p-aphic 

situation. 



Plain 

Slope. . .. 
Plateau . . 
Slope. . .. 
Knoll... - 
Slope 



do 

Plateau 



Slope. . 
do. 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do 



do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

do. . 

do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

Plateau. 

do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

Slope. . . 
Plateau . 
Slope. . . 



.do. 



Swale . 
SIoDe. 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Plain.. 



Ridge. 



Ele- 
vation 
above 

sea 
level. 



Slope. . 

do. 

do. 

do. 



Feet. 
140 
120 
125 
120 
175 
190 

145 
205 



230 



230 
240 



225 
117 
175 
145 

125 
110 
120 
195 
170 
120 
145 
170 
210 
165 
95 
125 
150 
175 
150 

180 

170 

105 

115 
140 

85 



60 
110 
195 
165 
160 



200 
175 
170 
150 



Total 
depth. 



Feet. 
27.8 
27.1 
28.1 
18.4 
28.1 
15.7 

24.4 
11.5 

16.0 
25.0 

18.0 
30.0 



24.7 
14.5 
25.1 
21.7 

16.8 
11.9 
17.9 
14.0 
10.9 
19.3 
17.9 
12.8 
19.0 
19.1 
17.4 
18.5 
18.9 
40.1 
14.3 

20.7 

12.7 

17.7 

20.1 
20.1 
28.3 



19.1 
18.8 
19.4 
14.8 
14.2 

24.3 

31.7 
27.0 
32.0 
12.1 



Depth 

to 
water. 



Feet. 
25.8 
25.7 
26.9 
15.1 
24.4 
9.6 

18.0 
8.9 

14.3 
17.0 

15.2 
27.0 



19.6 
13.6 
19.1 



14.4 
9.9 

16.5 

8.0 

9.2 

10.6 

12.9 

9.8 

13.3 

18,1 

15.6 

15.8 

12.9 

29.9 

iO.8 

17.6 

10.0 

16.0 

14.6 
13.9 
26.1 



15.2 
14.5 
18.3 
10.2 
11.9 

17.6 

28.8 



Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 



Feet. 
2.0 
1.4 
1.2 
3,3 
3.7 
6.1 

6.4 
2.6 

1.7 
8.0 

2.8 
3.0 



5.1 

0.9 

6.0 

Dry. 

2.4 
2.0 
1.4 
6.0 
1.7 
8.7 
5.0 
3.0 
5.7 
1,0 
1.8 
2.7 
6.0 
10.2 
3.5 

3.1 



1.7 

5.5 
6.2 
2.2 



3.9 
4.3 
1.1 

4.6 
2.3 



2.9 



17.0 
3.3 



Ris 



Windlass rig 

Two-bucket rig.. . 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

AVindlass rig 

Air-pressure sys- 
tem. 

Windlass rig 

Windlass rig and 
house pump. 

Windlass rig.." 

Chain pump and 
electric pump. 

Windla.ss rig 

Deep-well pump 
and hot-air en- 
gine. 

Windlass rig 

Two-bucket rig.. . 

Windlass rig 

do 



Remarks. 



Two-bucket rig. . . 

Sweep rig 

Windlass rig 

do ': 

Chain pump 

do 

do 

Two-bucket rii; . . . 

do 

Windlass rig 

Two-bucket rig.. . 

do 

do 

Gasoline engine . . 

Two - bucket r i g 

and house piimp. 

Two- bucket rig.. , 

Chain pump 

Two - bucket r i g 
and house pump 

Chain pump 

Two- bucket rig . . . 
Chain pump 

Tv/o-bucket rig. . . 

do 

Chain pump 

House pnmp 

Sweeping and 

house pump. 
Two - bucket rig 

and house pump 
Two-bucket rig . . . 
Deep- well pump . , 

Sweep rig 



Nonfailin" 
Do. ' 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 



Do. 



Do. 



Fails. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fails. Rock 

bottom. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Fails. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fails. 

Do. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 

Fails. Rock; 5 

feel. 
Fa i 1 s . Rock 

bottom. 
Nonfailing. 



Do. 
Fails. For 

analysis seo 

p. 89. 
Nonfailing. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing. 
Do. 



XOinVALK. 

IVf //.s- (Inn ill till ill Xdiirall,- — ( "om iiiuiMl. 



«J3 



No. 



Topo- 

prnphii; 

si t mi t ion. 



Plain. . 

Sloiie. . 

Plain.. 

' do. 

I Slope.. 

Stephen riwe...l Hill — 



Slope. 



'.IP) 

101 
103 



do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

Swale.. 

Slope. . 

Hill.... 

Slope.. 
do.. 

Hilltop. 

Phiin.. 



Slope 

do 

do 

Plateau.... 

Island (?)., 



Flo- 

\a!iiin 

above 

sea 

le\cl. 



Tolal 
doplli 



Feet. 
125 
115 
120 
210 
65 
105 

100 
ti5 
40 
65 
00 
fiO 
70 
55 



Fed. 
15. 1 
15.7 
11.5 
15.5 
10.5 
24.1 

IS. 9 
17.1 
18.4 
27. 5 
10. S 
23.0 
8.4 
9.8 
18.7 
9.5 
22.0 
31.7 



40, 10.3 

85 I 17.6 

75 14. 6 

130 19. 6 



I>C)llll 

to 
w'alor. 



Ffct. 
12.7 
14.3 
9.1 
10.1 
13.8 
16.1 

16.1 
16.0 
15.8 
23.7 

5.3 
IS. 3 

6.0 

7.7 
15. 

5.4 
14.5 
17.9 



Depth! 

of 
water 

in I 
well. 



licniarks 



Feet. 
2.4 
1.4 
2.4 
5.4 
5.7 
N.O 

2.8 
1.1 
2.6 
3.8 
5. 5 
4.7 
2.4 
2.1 
3.7 
4.1 
7.5 
13.8 



Chain pump. 



Sweep ris 

Windlass ri}; 

do 

Two-bucket ri;,' 
and tioiiseputnp. 

Two-l)iieket rif,'.. . 
do 

Windlass rig 

Two-liiiekei rig.. . 

House pump 

Two-bueket rig. . . 

Nori.i; 

Two-bucket ri;;.. . 
do 

Chain pump 

Two-bucket rig. . . 

Windmill 



6.8 


3.5 


11.5 


6.1 


13. 5 


1.1 


13.3 


6.3 



Chain ptimp. .. 
Two-bucket rig. 
Windlass rig. . . 
Two-bucket rig. 



Nonfailing. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

Do. 

Fails. 



Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Fails. 

Do. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Never used; 
water salty. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 



lIVZ/.s (lug in f^traiifivd drift in Xonrall:. 



No. on 
J 1. 11. 


Owner. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 


Ele- 
vation 
above 
sea 
level. 


Total 

depth. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 


Rig. 


Kcmarks. 


23 




Slope 

I'lain 

Slope 

do 

do 


Feet. 
115 
90 
75 
90 
60 
50 
70 

50 
35 
130 
125 

120 
110 
25 
70 
70 
75 
00 
50 
30 
25 
25 
10 


Feel. 
11.0 
22.3 
22.3 
20.8 
27. 1 
15.3 
20.7 

27.3 
10.5 
21.8 
22 

12.8 
16.9 
11.6 
22.0 
21.0 
22.1 
15.7 

7.7 
29.0 
21.3 
20.9 

8.4 


Fat. 
8.2 
19.4 
19.1 
18.6 
25.4 
13.6 
IS. 2 

25.0 
ti. 7 
19.1 
18 

11.8 
15.7 
10.0 
19.3 
19.4 
18.2 
13.9 

5.3 
26. 6 
21.5 
17.7 

6. 8 


Fed. 
2.8 
2.9 
3.2 
2.2 
2.0 
1.7 

2,3 

3.8 
2.7 
4 

1.0 
1.2 
1.6 
2.7 
1.6 
3.9 
1.8 
2.4 
2.4 
2.8 
3.2 
1.6 


Windlass rig . . . 
.do 




2i 






30 




do 


Nonfailing. 
Do. 


32 




do 


31 


Two-bucket ri.a; 
do 


Do. 


35 


do 


Do. 


36 
37 


Miss M. A. Mc- 
Carthy. 


I'lain 

do 


do 

do 


Fails. For assay, 
see p. 89. 


•18 


,!n 


Chain piunp — 

Windlass rig. . . 


Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Nonfailing: will 


66 
63 


Clover .Manufac- 
turing Co. 


do 

do 

Slope 

do 

Plain 

do 

do 

do.;... 

... .do 


f.6 


Chain pump — 
do 


yield 50 gallons 
a minute. For 
assay see p. 89. 
Fails. 


117 






;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 


Nonfailing. 


ii9 


.. do 


Do. 


72 
72.V 


Tw -bucket rig 
. do 


Do. 
Do. 


73 


.. ..do 


Do. 


74 


Chain puni:>... 
Two-bucket rig. 
do 


Do. 






Swale 

Plain 

Terrace 

Slope 

Terrace 




>-7 


'.t;w. Marvin.".'; 


Do. 


SS 


..do 


Do. 


89 
'Jl 


Windlass rig . . . 
House pump... 


Do. 
Nonfailing; fresh 
water. For as- 
say see p. 89. 



94 GEOUXD WATER IX jN'OEWAiK A^D OTHER AREAS, COXN, 

Drilled icells in Nonralk. 



No. on 
PI. II. 


Owner. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situa- 
tion. 


Eleva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
rock. 


Depth 

to 
water 

in 
■well. 


Di- 
ame- 
ter. 


Yield 
per 
min- 
ute. 


Remarks. 


6 


Fathers of the Holy 

Ghost. 
.....do 


Slope .. 


Feet. 


Feet. 
136 

108 
260 

197 

45 
168 


Feet. 
12 

20 

80 

30 

20 
16 


Feet. 
10 

20 
6 

15 


In. 
6 

6 

8 

6 


6 


20 
5 

4 

8 
J 




6A 


.. do-. 






•16 

47 


Norwalk Iron Works 
Co. 


Valley.. 
Slope... 

--.do..-- 
.. do -- 


&5 

60 

40 

210 

4 

110 
110" 
30 

8 
5 


Water hard. 

Water from gneiss. 
For 'analysis see 
p. 89. 


49 
50 


Samuel R . Weed 

School. 


59 


H. A. Beach 


...do...- 




70 

81 


Meeker's Union 

Foundry Co. 

To^vnfarm 

St. James" Homes 

Mrs.R.L.Luckpy ... 

Manresi institute 

South N r w a 1 k 

Oyster Farms Co. 
Jos. Burns 


Valley . 

Slope... 
...do.... 
Ridge.. 
Island.. 
Plain... 

^'aIlev 


107 
152 


40 


5 
18 









sr^ 








97 
100 
102 


188 
125 
258 

247 


23 

75 


20 

8 


6 


3 

20 
Large 

25 


Vratcr salty.ii 


(*) 


10 


6 

















« For analvsis see U. S. Cleol. Survev Water-Supplv Paper 102, p. 142, 1904. 

i) Not plotted on map. Data from U. S. GeoL Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 82, 1909. 

BIDGEFIEXD. 

AREA, POPTJLATIOX, AND INDUSTRIES. 

Eiclgefield, a town typical of the western highlands of Connecticut. 
is near the middle of the west bonndary of Fairfield County. Dan- 
bury adjoins it on the north and Norwaik is 15 miles south on Long- 
Island Sound. To the west is part of Westchester County, N". Y. 
The town has an area of 35^ square miles. There are several exten- 
sive stretches of woodland and many small wood lots. These woods 
are uniformly distributed over the town on the hills and steeper 
slopes and aggregate 14 square miles or 40 per cent of the total 
area. The valleys are for the most part cleared. 

Ridgefield was incorporated in 1709, and in 1901 the village was 
made a borough. There have been no additions to or cessions of the 
original territory. In 1910 the population was 3,118, an increase of 
492 over the 1900 population. The density of population averages 
88 to the square mile. The follovring table shows the population at 
each census and the i>er cent change in the preceding interval : 

Population of Eirhjefiehl, 115G-W10:- 



Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


1756 


1,115 
1,708 
1,697 
1,947 
2,025 
2,103 
2,301 
2,305 




1840 . .. 


2,474 
2,237 
2, 213 
1,919 
2, 028 
2,235 
2,626 
3,118 


-)- 7 


1774 


-1-53 
- 1 

+ 15 
+ 4 
H- 4 

-:- 9 




1850 


— 10 


1782 


1860 


— 1 


1790 


1870 - - 


-13 


isoo 


1880..... 


-f 6 


1810 


1890 


-MO 


1820 


1900 


-1-17 


1830 


1910 


-1-19 









a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 640. 



EIDGKFIl'lLU. 05 

H'hore \\:i> in gvneral a JiuxloiaLi' oiowili u[> to Is-k), a marked de- 
crease from 1840 to 1870, and a rapid growth from 1870 to the 
present time. The decrease was due to the general eniigTation from 
(he agricultural districts of New Knglaml but may have been ac- 
centuated by tiio distance of the town from the first railroads. The 
subsequent groM-th is I he result of the completion of the railroad in 
1870 and of the development of the region as a district of country 
residences. This development will probably continue and will be 
greatly stimulated if a projected railroad to connect ^vith the main 
line of the New York, Xew Haven & Hartford Railroad at Green- 
wich is eventually constructed. 

The principal settlement is the centrally located borough of Ridge- 
iield. There is also a small settlement, Titicus, a mile northwest of 
the borough. Branch ville is in part in the southeast corner of Ridge- 
field but spreads over into Redding and Wilton. Ridgebury is a 
small village in the north part of the town. There is a post office at 
Ridgefield and rural- delivery service to the outlying sections. There 
is also a post office at Branchville in Redding. The Danbury branch 
of the New York, New Haven t*c Hartford Railroad, opened in 1852, 
runs north and south along the east boundary and has stations at 
Brauch\ille and Sanford. The Ridgefield branch, a little less than 
4 miles long, connects Ridgefield and Branch\'ille, and has stations 
at Florida and Cooper. An automobile stage line connects Ridgefield 
with Danbury. 

Tlie principal industry of Ridgefield is agriculture, and dairy 
products for the New York market form a specialty. The quarrying 
and grinding of feldspar and quartz have been carried on intermit- 
tently. Formerly there was also some manufacturing of cabinet 
work, shoes, hats, and tinware, but these industries died out about 
1850 M'ith the oreneral change of industrial conditions. 

SFr.FACK FEATTEES. 

The characteristic features of the western highlands of Connecti- 
cut are better developed in Ridgefield than elsevdiere in the Norwalk 
area, because it is the most remote from the S'ound. In the south 
part of the town the broad, flat-topped hills are approximately 800 
feet above sea level. Farther north the hilltops are approximately 
1,000 feet, but in the extreme north part. of the town the hills are 
somewhat lower. The valle3^s between the hills are cut to different 
depths. It seems probable that this region was once eroded to a 
nearly flat surface. Subsequent uplift of the region rejuvenated 
the streams so that valleys have been cut below the old erosion sur- 
faces. Tlie valley north of Round Mountain and the valley of 
Titicus River, v.hich join just north of the village of Ridgefield, 



96 



GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 



0) o 









and their southwestwarcl continuation are underlain by limestone, 
which is relatively soluble, so that these zones have been deeply 
eroded. These valleys are characterized by wide and nearly level 
floors above Avhich rise st«ep w^alls with many bare outcropping 
ledees. The other valiej^s have only narrow valley floors. The 
valley south of Eound Pond is also of the 
broad-floored type and is underlain by lime- 
stone. Figure 15 shows a profile across Eidge- 
field drawn along a line bearing northeast 
which is indicated on the maps (Pis. II and 
III) by the line C\ It shows the two lime- 
stone, vallej^s cut below the upland areas of 
gneiss. 

The highest point in Eidgefield is Pine 
Mountain, the crest of which is 1,060 feet above 
sea level, and the lowest point is where Norwalk 
River crosses the south boundai^y at an eleva- 
tion of 330 feet. 

Mamanasco Lake occupies a depression on 
the flank of the valley of Titicus River at the 
foot of the north slope of Scott Ridge. Some- 
what similar depressions are to be found else- 
where in the limestone area but have been filled 
in. Most of the filling was probably done in 
late glacial times by debris carried by the great 
volumes of melt water from the glacier. Wells 
sunk by the Ridgefield Water Supply Co. in 
the swamp south of Round Pond gave the fol- 
lowing section: Alluvium, 40 to 60 feet; clay, 
10 feet ; sand and gravel, 230 to 250 feet. This 
section may indicate that the melt water washed 
in 250 feet of sand, after which the supply of 
sediment decreased, and the basin became a 
lake, in the bottom of which 10 feet of clay was 
deposited. Finally 40 to 60 feet of alluvium 
has been carried in and the lake filled up. 
The clay layer must extend under all or nearly 
all of the swamp, as it effectually prevents any 
° ^ entrance of water into the sands below it. 

Eidgefield occupies parts of six drainage basins. An area of about 
half a square mile in the northwest corner is drained by a small 
brook tributary to Still River which flows northward and enters 
Housatonic River near New Milford. The run-off of about 8 square 
miles in the northeast part of the town reaches Saugatuck River. Ten 



^ oi 



BIDOKFIELD. 97 

square miles in the east-central and southeast parts of Ridscficld :.ro 
included in the headwaters of N(irwalk River. The headwaters of 
Silverinine River drain about 3 square miles in the southwest part of 
the town, and just north is an area of 2 square miles tributary to Mill 
Jviver. which enters Long Island Sound at Stamford. Three square 
miles at the middle of the western margin of Ridgefield is drained 
by Waccabuc River, which flows into Cross River and so to Croton 
River and the Hudson. The west-central and northwest parts of the 
town are drained by Titicus River, which also is tributary to Croton 
and Hudson rivers. The borough of Ridgefield, then, includes paiiis 
of the basins of Housatonic, Saugatuck, Xorwalk, Silvermine, Mill, 
and Hudson rivers. 

■WATKR-HEARING FORMATIONS. 

BefJrock. — Four varieties of bedrock have been recognized in 
Ridgefield.^ About 18 square miles in the north part of the town 
is underlain by the Becket granite gneiss. The original character of 
this rock is not certain, but it is probably essentially a metamorphic 
rock of igneous origin. It is a banded gray rock, composed of layers 
rich in biotite wdiich alternate with layers rich in the lighter-colored 
(ju.artz and feldspar. The segi-egation is due to the flowage under 
intense metamorphism and realinement of the grains under pressure. 
This structure is more developed in some places than in others, and 
there makes the rock readily cleavable. 

The bedrock of an area of 2 square miles in the southeast corner 
of the town is the Danburj^ granodiorite gneiss. It is a gray rock 
composed substantially of quartz, feldspar, and hornblende. Other 
minerals are present in minor amounts, and in some phases biotite 
(black mica) replaces more or less completely the hornblende. In 
one phase of the rock certain of the feldspar crystals are much larger 
than the other mineral grains and give the rock a porphyritic texture. 
The rock is massive but has a distinct gneissoid texture formed by 
the flowage concomitant with mashing during regional meta- 
morphism. 

Underlying an area of 7 square miles in the southwestern part of 
Ridgefield, and including most of the borough, is the Thomaston 
granite gneiss. It is similar to the Danbury gi^anodiorite gneiss 
except that hornblende is nowhere prominent, and the por]3hyritic 
texture is absent. 

The features of the Becket, Danbury, and Thomaston gneisses that 
relate to their carrying water are similar, and may be discussed 

1 Oi-pgory, H. E., and Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geolosrical map of Connecticut: 
Connofticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Bull. 7, 1907. 

154444"— 20 7 



98 GROUND WATER IN JSTOEWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

together. A little water may be contained in the minute openings be- 
tween the mineral grains, but its amount is negligible. These rocks 
have been subjected to great and violent crustal movements which 
have opened fissures that in general form parallel systems whose 
directions depend on the direction in which the stresses acted. One 
system is horizontal or onlj^ slightly inclined, and is cut by one or 
more systems of steeply inclined or nearl}- vertical fissures. The 
rock is thus cut into polygonal blocks by the intersecting fissures and 
joints. Some rain water finds its way through the mantle of over- 
lying unconsolidated material into the intricate network of joints 
and crevices. Wells drilled into these rocks are apt to intersect, 
within a reasonable depth, one or more of these water-bearing fis- 
sures and thus obtain a moderate to abundant supply of water. 
Data on five such wells are given in the table on page 103. 

The Stockbridge dolomite underlies several valleys half a mile 
to a mile wide that aggregate 9 square miles in area. This rock is 
a light gray magnesiau limestone and is no doubt of marine origin. 
Much of the rock has been metamorphosed to a medium-grained, well- 
crystallized marble. The calcite and dolomite, of which the rock 
is essentially composed, yield under metamorphism and recrystallize 
as roughly equidimensional grains that are unlike the elongated 
minerals formed from sandstones, shales, or igneous rocks. The 
resulting texture is more massive. The marble is relatively soluble, 
so that solution channels are veiy apt to be made hj water circu- 
lating along joint planes and bedding planes. Water gets into such 
channels by percolation from the overlying soil and may in many 
places be recovered by drilled wells. The well of Mr. S. L. Pierponi: 
and the well at the Town Farm are of this type. Interstitial water 
plays only a minor part in marbles. 

Till. — Overlying the bedrock of Eidgefield is till, except where 
it is replaced by stratified drift or where ledges crop out. When the 
glacier overrode New England in the ice age it scraped up the 
mantle of decayed rock over the fresh, unweathered rock below. It 
also broke off and ground away a good deal of the firm bedrock. 
These materials were carried along by the ice sheet in its southerly 
movement and were eventually deposited as till in part in de- 
pressions and in part over the flat surfaces of the bedi^ock. The till 
is an intimate and heterogeneous mixture of all this debris. Pebbles 
and cobbles and even large boulders are embedded in a matrix of the 
finer materials — sand, silt, clay, and rock flour. The till is very 
compact because of the great weight of the overlying ice sheet which 
pressed it down. Part of the water that falls as rain soaks into tlse 
ground and percolates downward through it until an impervious 



RIDGEFIELD. 



99 



■/.onQ is reached or a zone of pervious material completely saturated. 
Some of the water will get into fissures in the underlying bedrock, 
s(nae of it will moxo laterally and evputually bo roiurned to the sur- 
face in springs or swamps at a lower elevation, and some may lie 
withdrawn by wells. There are in some places bodies of partly 
washed and stratified materials in the till, and these greatly further 
tlie cireulntion of water. AVells dug iu till will furnish moderata 
supplies of water that slowly percolates into them. Such a supply 
is fairly dependable in times of drought unless the well is unfavor- 
ably situated, as on a steep slope from which the water may drain 
away. Wells that intersect rather more porous lenses in the till 
or that reach the watcrbed or saturated zone just above tlie bedrock 
are apt to yield the most abundant supplies. During the later part 
of November, lOlG. measurements were made of 57 wells dug in till 
in Ridgefield. At that time 3 were dry, 13 more were said by the 
owuers to fail, and 3- were said to be nonfailing. The data collected 
are given in detail in the table on page 102 and are summarized in 
the following table. The wells that were dry have been neglected 
in computing the depth to water and the depths of water in the wells. 



SininiKinj of iccUh duy in till hi Hidf/ejichl. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth to 

water. 


Depth of 

water 
in well. 


Maximum . .. 


Feet. 
33.0 
9.3 

ISI.8 


Feet. 
29.9 
5.9 
14.7 


Feci. 
12.3 


Miuimnm 


.4 


\ TPFafw ... 


3.& 











Strntiftcd drift. — Stratified drift is the mantle rock of a con- 
siderable part of the valleys of Eidgefield that are underlain by the 
Stockbridge dolomite, and of parts of the valley of Xorwalk River. 
It is a well-washed and sorted stratified deposit formed in large part 
from till by the action of running water. It is an older alluvium 
and on the map (PI. Ill) it is not differentiated from recent al- 
luvium. The only differences are, first, that stratified drift was laid 
down at the end of the glacial epoch by the streams of melt water 
that issued from the ice sheet, whereas alluvium is more recent and 
is still being laid down, and, second, that stratified drift is apt to be 
but is not necessarily the coarser. Owing to the sorting action of the 
water the interstices between the larger particles are not filled by 
smaller particles as in till, so that the porosity is greater. Moreover, 
the pores individually are larger and present less frictional resistance 
to the circulation of v/ater. Wells in stratified drift get w^ater in the 



100 GKOTJND WATER. IIST NOR WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

same way as wells in till but with greater abundance. Seven such 
wells w^ere measured in Eidgefield. Two were said to fail, and three to 
be nonfailing, but the reliability of the other two could not be ascer- 
tained. The data collected concerning these wells are given in de- 
tail in the table on page 103 and are summarized in the following 
table : 

Nummary of wells duff in stratified drift hi RidgefieJd. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth to 
water. 


Depth of 

water 
in well. 


Maximum 


Feet. 
15.9 
14.0 
11.4 


Feet. 
13.3 

7.7 
11.8 


Feet. 
5.5 


Minimum 


.9 


Average 


2.7 







QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

The following table gives the rCnSults of t"^'o analyses and four 
assays of samples of ground water collected in the town of Kidge- 
fielcL The waters are moderately mineralized except Nos. 15, 72, 
and 74, which have a low mineral content. Nos. 72 and 74 are very 
soft, in contrast with No. 15, which is a soft water, and Nos. 16, 48, 
and 57, which are hard waters. The reason for this contrast is 
presumably that wells Nos. 72 and 74 lie in situations where the 
glacier brought no debris derived from the Stockbridge dolomite, 
whereas the till around the other wells contains a considerable pro- 
portion of the relatively soluble dolomitic material. A comparison 
of analysis No. 15, which represents a sample from a well drilled into 
the dolomite, v/ith analysis No. 16, which represents a samjple from 
a near-by shallow well dug into the till, also suggests that the 
grouncl-up dolomitic material is especially siisceptible to solution 
and tends to make highly mineralized waters. The solid, firm dolo- 
mite, on the other hand, is less easily dissolved, by reason of its 
mechanical condition and therefore yields less highly mineralized 
waters. 

The waters represented by analyses Nos. 15, 72, and 74 are good 
for domestic purposes so far as may be judged from their mineral 
content, but the other waters are rated as fair because of their hard- 
ness. Nos. 15, 72, and 74 are also acceptable for boiler use, but the 
other waters are rated as poor because of excessive amounts of scale- 
forming ingredients. All are calcium-carbonate in type except the 
very soft waters, Nos. 72 and 74, which are sodium-carbonate waters. 



RlDtiKFIKLl). 



101 



Vhcinmil i<jiiii)i)f<itMii (IikI < Id.^si/icdtidii >,( yiouinl irdltin in h'itlffefield.'^ 

I Parts ]H>r million; analyzod by Alfred A. Chambris and C. 11. Kidw.ll. Nuinlici-s of 
analyses and assays corrcsjiond to those used on I'l. 11. J 



Analyses. 6 



Silica (SiOs) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca ) 

Magiiesiiiiii ( Mg) 

Sodium (Xa) 

I'otiissinm (K) 

( "all ■Dim le radicle (CO3) 

Bk-arboi.ate radicle (IICO3) ... . 

Snlphate radicle (SOj) 

( hloride racUcle (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total d ssolved solids at 180° C. 

Total liardness as CaCOs 

Scale-formins constituents/ 

Foaming constituents / 



Chemical character 

I'rol lability of corrosion h 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic use.. 



17 

.14 
IS 

4.6 
11 

6.9 

77 

14 

6.2 

.08 

114 

/64 

78 

49 

Ca-COs 
(?) 

Oood. 
Good. 



dl6 



IS 

.40 

r.7 
17 
12 
C.4 
7.0 
230 
22 
6.8 
4.1 
253 
/212 
210 
49 

Ca-COa 
(?) 
Poor. 
Fair. 



-Vssays.c 



0. 13 



Trace. 

7.2 
2."d 
11 
3.6 



/2S0 
244 
270 

(?) 

Ca-CO, 
(?) 
I'oor. 
Fair. 



/22 

4.S 
334 
27 
14 



/3S0 

2S5 

310 

60 

Ca-COa 
(?) 
I'oor. 
Fair. 



'I'race. 



/14 

.0 
62 
6.0 
2.2 



/ 91 
33 
60 
40 

Xa-COs 

N 

Good. 

(iood. 



no 

.0 
34 
9.0 
3.2 



/73 
22 

30 

Na-COa 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



a For location: and other descriptive information see pp. 102-103. 

6 For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 

c Approximations; for methods used in assays and reliability of results ; ee pp. 52-GO. 

d Collected Nov. 28, 1916. 

e Collected Dec. S, 1916. 

/Computed. 

g Less than 10 parts per million. 

A Based on computed quantity; (?)=corrosion uncertain, N=noncorroslve. 



PUBLIC ^^'ATER SUPPLY. 



The Ridgefield Water Supply Co. has been serving its customers in 
and around tlie borough since 1900. Water ^vas first obtained from 
five driven wells in a svvamp a mile south-southwesl of Round 
Pond. These wells were GO feet deep; two were G inches and three 
were 3 inches in diameter. They drew moderate amounts of water 
from gravel, but the water was under veiy slight head and had to 
be lifted 50 feet. Subsequently three wells were vS.unk at the same 
l)Iace to depths of about 300 feet. They went through 10 to 50 feet 
of alluvium, 10 feet or so of clay, and finally through more than 200 
feet of sand. Xo water was obtained below the cla}- and only 
moderate amounts above it. 

At present all the wells are abandoned and water is pumped from 
Round Pond to a steel standpipe of 188,000 gallons capacity located 
on a ridge 1^ miles south-southeast of the pond. There are two 
triplex single-acting pumps, 10 by 10 inches, driven by two 35-horse- 
power electric motors and working against a pressure of 75 pounds 
to the square inch. The water is distributed by gravity fi'om the 
.standpipe through 11 miles of mains to 70 hydrants and 383 service 
taps, of which 311 are metered. The pressure ranges from 75 to 90 
pounds per square inch. Tlie 2,500 peojjle served consume on the 
average about 118,000 gallons a day, Roi.nd Pond is presumably 



102 GROlTTs^D WATER IB NOEWALK AjSTD OTHER AREAS, CONX. 



fed by subaqueous springs.^ The water in the pond has heretofore 
been abundant, and a much larger quantity coukl be furnished. 



RECORDS or WELLS AKD SPRINGS. 

Wells dug in till in li. id fje field. 



No. 

on PI. 

11. 


0\vncr. 


Topogra- 
phic situa- 
tion. 


Ele- 
va- 
tion 
above 
sea 
level. 


Total 
depth 


Depth Depth 
to of 

water. 'water. 


Rix. 


Remarks. 


2 




Slope 

do 


Feci. 
620 
500 

500 
560 
610 
685 
785 
665 
795 
670 
620 
540 

565 
650 
605 
595 
695 

610 
780 
590 
825 
730 

715 
630 
700 
070 
720 
670 
765 
745 
790 
575 
470 
550 
575 

590 
600 
635 
750 
755 
770 
790 

740 

785 

780 
765 
745 
615 
630 

703 
525 
040 
690 

500 
550 
430 

4S0 


Feef. 
9.4 
18.5 

12.7 

17.9 

21.6 

19.2 

30 

25.2 

13.4 

12.3 

22.9 

15.4 

24.6 
25.7 
13.5 
10.6 
23.3 

21.2 
25.7 
24.6 
21.0 
22.0 

24.0 
10.1 
19.9 
13. 5 
17.0 
9.3 
10.4 
20.8 
11.0 
14.9 
18 

30.0 
33.0 

17.1 
14.8 

9.3 
25.2 
18.9 
19.7 

9.6 

25.6 

14.4 

20.8 
25.9 
20.5 
16.6 
25.6 

15.0 
17.3 
18.2 
14.0 
13.2 
13.2 
14.0 

24.9 


Feel. 
5.9 
14.2 

7.7 
11.1 

14.8 
13.8 

'i2.'2' 

13.3 

23.5 
24.4 
11.2 
13.9 

19.8 

19.0 
24.4 
10.0 
19.6 
21.7 

20.5 
9.6 
17.4 
12.0 
10.0 
6.0 
8.9 
15.0 
9.7 
14.0 
3 

29.9 
29.8 

15.5 
12.4 

7.0 
19.4 
13.3 
11.7 

8.0 

13.3 

10.3 

12.5 
23.5 
13.6 
13.3 
15.5 

13.6 
14.7 
12.9 
12.9 
10.6 
12.1 
12.7 

24.5 


Feet. 
3.5 
4.3 

5.0 

6.8 

6.8 

5.4 

Dry 

Dry 

1.2 

Dry 

2.2 

2.1 

1.1 
1.3 
2.3 
2.7 
3.5 

2.2 
1.3 

8.6 
1.4 
0.3 

3.5 
0.5 
2.5 
1.5 
0.4 
3.3 
7.5 
5.8 
1.9 
0.9 
15 
0.7 
3.2 

1,6 
2.4 
2.3 
5.8 
5.6 
8.0 
1.6 

12.3 

4.1 

8.3 
2.4 
6.9 
3.3 
10.1 

1.4 
2.6 
5.3 
1.1 
2.6 
1.1 
1.9 

0.4 


Chain pump 

Chain prnnp and 
house piunp. 

Chain piunp 

do 

do 

Two-bucket rig 

Deep-well pump. . 

Windlass rig 

No rig 

Two-bucket rig 

Chain piunp 

House piunp 

Two-bucket rig 

do 


Non failing. 


3 




Do. 


4 




do...... 


Do. 


5 
6 
7 
8 
9 





do 


Do. 


;;:::::::::::... 


Hill 

Slope 

do 


Do. 








Fails. 




Hill 

Slope 

do 

do 


Do. 


10 




Do. 


12 
13 




Do. 

Nonfailing. 
Nonfaiiing. For 

analv.sis s?e p. 

101.' 
Do. 


16 
17 


S. L. Pierpont 


do 

do 


19 


1 do 


Fails. 


20 


1 do 


Chain pump 

do 




92 


1 . do 




24 




do 


do.... 


Nonl'aiUng. Rock 


25 




do 


Two-bucket rig 

do.. 


bottom. 
Do. 


26 




do 




27 




do 


Do. 


29 




Ridge 

Slope 

Swale 

Slope 

do 


Two-bucket rig 

Windlass rig 

do 


Fails. 


30 






31 




torn. 
Nonfailing. 
Fails. 


33 




Chain pump 

Two-bucket rig 

Chain pump 

Two-bucket rig 

Windia.s.s rig 

Chain pump 

do 


34 




Nonfailing. 
Fails. 


3S 




do 


36 




do 


Do. 


39 




do 


NonfaiEng. 
Fails. 


42 
43 




do 

. do 


44 




do 




Nonfailing. 
Fails. 


45 




do 


Two- bucket rig 


46 


L. D.Conley 


Plain 

Slope 

do 

do 




47 


Two-bucket rig — 
do 

do 


Fails. 


48 
49 


JohnH. Pinch... 


Nonfailing. For 
assav seo p. 101. 
Fails. 


50 




do 


Chain pump 

do 


Do. 


51 




do 




52 




. . do 


do 


Fails. 


54 


The Bailey Inn... 


Ridge 

Plateau — 
do 


.. do 


Nonfailing. 
Do. 


55 


do 


56 


Sweep rig and 

house pump. 
Chain pump 

House pump 

Two-bucket rig 

do 


Nonfailing- 
Abandoned. 


57 


E. S. Conch 


....do 


58 




do 


assay see p. 101. 
Nonfailing. Rock 
bottom. 
Do. 


59 




Slope....... 

Ridge 

Plateau — 

Slope 

do 


60 






61 




do 


Do. 


62 




Wheel and axle rig. 

Wheel and axle rig 

and house pump. 

Two-bucket rig 

do 


Do 


63 




Do. 


64 




do 


Do. 


65 




do 




66 




do 


Chain pump 

Windlass rig 




67 




.... do 


Do. 


68 




do 




71 




Slope 

Knoll 

Slope 


Chain pump 

Sweep rig and 

house piunp. 
Wheel and axle rig. 




72 
73 




Nonfailing. For 
assay see p. 101. 









1 Rept. Connecticut Public Utilities Commission, 1917 



lULHiEFlELI>. 
WcU^ dun '» lilrati/'ud drifl in lililuvficUL 



103 



N<\ (111 

ri. 11. 



L.D.Conley. 



Seth Heer.^ 



Ti)ii(i;ra]iiru 
.-;il:;;iti()ii. 



Slope.. 

do. 

do. 

Plain.. 
Slope . . 
Plain.. 
Slope. . 



Kleva- 








1 ion 


Tol;il 


Dopdi 


Depth 


aliove 

sea 

Unol. 


depth. 


to 
water. 


of 
water. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


575 


14.4 


13.0 


1.4 


640 


■ 14. S 


13.1 


1.7 


OoO 


14.2 


13.3 


0.9 


470 


18 


3 


15 


455 


15.0 


11. S 


4.1 


445 


13.2 


7.7 


.5.5 


' 330 


14.0 


11.6 


2.4 



Two-bucket rig .... Fails. 

Windlass ri? Do. 

Two-bucket rig. 

(«) Nonfailinc. 

Chain pump. . . . 

AVindlass rig \ Do. 

Two-bucket rig i Konfaiiing. For 

I assay see p. 101. 



o Tiiis well was originally a sprine and was Improved by means of a drive pipe. Yields 1,500 gallons 
an liom- or 25 gallons a minute. 

Drilled ;rr?/.s' in Ridficfirld. 



c 

c 


Owner. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situa- 
tion. 


o 


ft 

■a 

O 


.is 

o 

o 

ft 

p 


°| 

ft" 


1 

a 
S 


ft-g 


Kind ofroc-k. 


Ilomarks. 


1 

M 


Ben .Xichols 

Kidgcfield School. 
S. L. Pierpont — 

Town ''arm 


Slope.... 

...do 

...do 

do. . . . 


Fed. 
590 
720 
560 

640 

530 

800 
800 
720 


Feet. 

t05 

210 

389? 

4.50 

300 

537 

551 

03(1 

75 


Feet. 



Feet. 
13 


In. 

6 
6 


GaU. 
15 

(a) 
30 


(ineiss 

do 

Limestone .... 

. .do 


J>ored well. 
Do 


15 

1'^ 





3 


Bored well. 
For analysis 
see p. 101. ft 

Water very 
hard. 

Abandoned. 


9S 


Ridgefield Water 
Supply Co. 

A. B. 'Hepburn 

Mrs. Wra. Jenner. 

Lawi-ason Riggs . . 

Connecticut Con- 
struction Co. 


Plain.... 

Plateau. 

...do 

...do 


300-h 

40 

40 










50 
50 


(0 

Oranitegneiss. 

do 

do 


40 
41 
53 
(/) 


25 
25 


s 
s 

8 


Sf^ 















" -\bundant. 

.'i.Vnumberoizonesof dark limestone were found in tlie liglit-eolored limestone. Eac'a of tliese beds 
yielded some water. 

cTliree wells, each about 300 feet deep, were attempted. The section encountered was in general 40 
to 60 feet of alluvium, 10 feet of clay, and the rest sand. No water was found beneath the clay. 

rf These wells, Nos. 40 and 41, probal>ly draw their water from the same fissure as pumping in one draws 
do'WTi the level of tlie water in the other. 

eThe water stands at from 130 to 250 feet below the surface and varies with the seasons. 

/ Not recorded on map. Data from U. S. Geoi. Survey Water-Supply Paper 102, p. 12S, 1904, said to 
flovv with head of 2 feet. 

Spri>ui-'< iu h'idf/fficJd. 



No. 

on 

PI. II. 


Owner. 


Topogi-aphic 
situation. 


Elevation 

above 
sea level. 


Tempera- 
ture. 


Yield per 
mmute. 


Remarks. 


11 




Slope 

Swale 

Brookside 


Feel. 
620 
635 
6.50 


"F. 


Oallons. 

i 
2 

i 
5 


Piped to horse trough. 


23 






Supplies four houses. 


32 




49 
40 

48 


(«) 


R. A. Bryan 


1 


Water from granite. 
Water from granite. » 


(a) 


Chas. Holly 


1 






1 





a Not shown on map. Data from U. S. Geol. Survey AVater-Supply Paper 102, p. 150, 1904. 
tiFor analysis see U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 102, p. 154, 1904. 



104 GEOUND WATEE IIsT XOEWALK AND OTHEE AEEAS, CONN. 

WESTON. 
AREA, POPULATIOX, AND IXDUSTRIES. 

Weston is an agricultural town situated in the western highlands 
near the center of Fairfield County, Conn., and in the second tier of 
towns north of Long Island Sound. The town is roughly rectan- 
gular in shape, 3| b}^ 6 miles in dimensions, and has an area of a 
little o^er 20 square miles. About 11 square miles, or 55 per cent, 
of the total area is wooded. Most of the woodland is in small 
patches, but in the northeastern part of the town there is one nearly 
continuous area of woods covering about 8 square miles. 

The territory of ^^'^eston was taken from the town of Fairfield in 
1787 and incorporated as a separate town. In 1910 Weston had 831 
inhabitants, and the density of the population is 42 to the square 
mile. The following table shows the fluctuation of population since 
the organization of the town, and the per cent of change of each 
census period. 

Population of, Weston, 1790-1910.'^ 



Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


Tear. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


1790 


2,469 
2,680 
2,618 
2,767 
2,997 
2,561 
1,0,56 




1860 

1870 

1880 

1890.. 

1900 

1910 


i,n7 

! 1,054 

918 

772 

840 

! 831 


-1- 6 


1800 


+9 
_2 

+ & 
+ 8 


— 6 


1810.. 

1820 


-13 
—16 


1830 


+ 9 


1840 


— 1 


1850 













a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 641. 

The decrease in the decade from 1830 to 1840 was due to the ces- 
sion of territor}^ to form part of Westport, and the further decrease 
in the following decade was due to the separation and incorporation 
of the whole of Easton. Barring these two irregularities, the popu- 
lation has shown onh^ slight gains or losses. In the last 50 years 
the losses have preponderated, probably owing to the general shift 
of people from the agi'icultural portions of New England to manu- 
facturing toAvns and to western farming regions. It is probable 
that when Wilton and Westport have been more fully developed 'as 
country-residence districts dependent on New York, Weston will fol- 
low a like course of evolution. This development may begin in 10 
or 15 years, and a considerable gain in population may be shown 
for some time. The population will probably never be large as long 
as the present lack of transportation facilities continues. At present 
there are four small villages in the town — Weston, in the valley of 
the West Branch of Saugatuck Eiver near the west boundary; 
Northfield, on the hill a mile east of Weston; Lyon Plain, stretched 



WESTON. 105 

out along 2 miles of the valley of Saiioatuck Eiver near the south 
boundary; and Valley Forge, near the northeast corner and also on 
Saugatuck River, There are about TO miles of roads in the town. 
Railroad connection is made at Wilton and (leorgetown on the Dan- 
bury branch of the New York, New llavcn it Hartford llailroad. 
Mail is carried by rural delivery from Westport. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The western highland of Connecticut, of which Weston is a part, 
is the product of two cycles of erosion. In the first cycle, which was 
nearly complete, the region was reduced to a nearly fiat plain. In 
the second cycle, caused by uplift and tilting of the plain, rather deep 
and narrow valleys have been cut below the old erosion surface. The 
valleys of Saugatuck River and its West Branch and of Aspetuck 
River are of this type. The flat-topped hills, which in the south part 
of the town are 340 to 380 feet above sea level and in the north part 
r-00 to 600 feet above sea level, are remnants of the plain that was 
eroded in the first cycle. These to]3ographic features are the prod- 
ucts of erosion, but the flat flood plains along Saugatuck River at 
Lyon Plain and above Yalley Forge and along West Branch north 
of Weston village are depositional features. 

The greatest elevation in Weston is 620 feet above sea level and is 
found at two points on the north boundary. The least elevation is 
where Saugatuck River crosses the Westport town line at 45 feet 
above sea level. With the exception of a small area in the northwest 
part of the town that is tributary to Norwalk River, all of Weston 
l>elongs in the drainage basin of Saugatuck River. A strip three- 
quarters of a mile wide along the east border is drained by Aspetuck 
River, which joins Saugatuck River half a mile below the Westport 
boundary. A strip 2 miles wide in the west part of Weston which 
comprises 7| square miles is drained by the West Branch of Sauga- 
tuck River, which flows into its master stream just below xVspetuck 
River. The main branch of Saugatuck River drains a strip 1 to 2 
miles wide through the center of the town, which has an area of 10^ 
square miles. A number of brooks, including Kettle and Beaver 
brooks, enter the Saugatuck from the w^est, but only a few from the 
east. 

W^ATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

Gneiss and schist. — Most of the bedrock of Weston is a gneiss of 
igneous origin. In the northeast corner there is some Berkshire 
schist, but it is of negligible extent. Waterbury gneiss underlies a 
strip half a mile wide along the divide between Saugatuck River and 
the Aspetuck. This rock is a light to medium gray schist into 



i 



106 GROUND WATER IK Is'ORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

which igneous intrusions have been made in great profusion. There 
are thin bands of the schist separated and cut by intruded sheets and 
diJvelets of igneous material. The Thomaston granite gneiss under- 
lies a strip half a mile wide south of Aspetuck village along Aspe- 
tuck River, and also most of the area west of Saugatuck River, It is 
a medium-grained granite and a typical one in that it is composed 
essentially of quartz, feldspar, and black mica, with small amounts 
of other minerals. Metamorphism has given it a gneissic texture 
that is marked by the concentration and parallel orientation of the 
mica flakes in certain planes. The Danbui';\- granodiorite gneiss 
underlies part of the valley of the West Branch of Saugatuck River 
and a small area west of Aspetuck River and north of the village of 
Aspetuck. It is similar to the Thomaston granite gneiss except 
that hornblende rather extensively replaces the mica. 

All the bedrock of Weston carries water in the same way. 
The rocks are very compact, and no interstitial water is to be obtained 
from them. However, they are traversed by intricate networks of 
fissures that cut and connect with one another. These fissures are 
far more abundant in the upper 200 feet than below. It is to be 
expected that wells drilled 200 or 300 feet into rock will cut one or 
more fissures and obtain fair supplies of water that has percolated 
down from the overlying mantle of earth. No such wells have been 
made in Weston as far as the present investigation shows. 

Till. — ^^The bedrock of Weston is everywhere covered with till ex- 
cept in small areas where the bedrock outcrops in ledges, and along 
some of the streams where there are deposits of stratified drift. Till 
is a dense, compact deposit composed of the debris scraped up, ground, 
and transported by the glacier. Rock flour, clay, silt, and sand form 
a matrix in which are embedded pebbles, cobbles, and boulders. 
In general there is no systematic arrangement of the material, and it 
is perfectly heterogeneous. In some places there are lenses from 
which the finer particles have been washed away, increasing the po- 
rosity of the residue. Water that has fallen as rain or melted from 
snow in part soaks into the ground and tends to saturate it by filling- 
all the pores. There also is a tendency, particularly on steep slopes, 
for the water to seep away, leaving the upper part of the till dry. In 
general wells dug in the till to a reasonable depth will jdeld moderate 
supplies that will fail only rarely. Those wells that intersect porous 
lenses in the till are apt to be the more satisfactorj". Unfortunately 
there is no way of detecting the presence of such lenses except by 
actual excavation. During October, 1917, 33 wells dug in till were 
measured in Weston. One was found to be dry, 11 more were said to 
fail, and 18 to be nonf ailing: the reliability of the remaining wells 
could not be ascertained. The data collected are given in detail in the 
table on pages 108-109 and are summarized in the following table ; 



WKSTON. 

Sum III a III of //•(7/s- ilii[/ in till in Weston. 



107 





Tolal 
depth. 


Deplh 
to water. 


Depth 
of water 
in well. 




Fed. 
2H.7 
H.O 
17.7 


Feet. 
2:i. H 
(i.2 
14.4 


Feel. 

s.o 




.a 




3.0 







^Sti'af'/fed (Jr/ff. — The areas of stratified drift in Weston are shown 
on the map (Ph II). These water-hiid deposits are compo.sed of the 
leworked and sorted constituents of the till and are to be considered 
as the products of the stream in whose valle^^ tliey lie. The particles 
composing- the till have been sorted out. The boulders and bigger 
stones have been left in place, but the sand and still finer grains have 
been carried away. Most of the finest materials, the clay and silt, 
have been carried out to sea, but the others have been deposited at 
points where the current was slow. The larger pebbles and cobbles 
were deposited with less slowing of the current than were tlie smaller 
ones. Inasmuch as the velocit}^ varied not only from place to place 
but also from time to time at any one place, lenses and beds of differ- 
ent-sized material were laid one on another in very irregular succes- 
sion. Stratified drift carries water in the same manner as till, but 
because of the elimination of the smaller particles it has a greater 
percentage of pore space and the pores are hirger. The ground- 
water circulation is therefore much more rapid, and stratified drift 
Avells yield more abundant supplies. Six such wells were visited in 
AVeston. Five of them are said to be nonf ailing and only one to fail. 
The data collected are given in detail in the table on page 109 and are 
summarized in the folloM'ing table: 

tSuiiriHuri/ of ivcUs diitj in stratified drift in Weston. 





Total 
depth. 


^- ^^^^- : in well. 




Feet. Feet. Feci. 
33.7 30.7 3.0 




15.6 13.7 j 0.3 




25.1 23.4 1 1.7 






1 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

The subjoined table gives the results of two analyses and four 
assays of samples of ground water collected in the town of Weston. 
The waters are all low in mineral content, very soft, good for use in 
boilers, and, so far as may be determined by their mineral content, 
acceptable for domestic use. All are sodium-carbonate in type. 



108 GROUIsTD WATER IN NOEWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONIT. 
Chemical composition and classification of ground ivaters in Weston.'^ 

[Parts per million. Collected Dee. 8, 1916; analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers and C. H. Kidwell. Num- 
bers of analyses and assays eorresiiond to those used on PI. II.] 



Analvses.'' 



Assays. < 



30 



34 



Siliea(SiOo) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K)'' 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chloride radicle (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total dissolved solids at 180° C 

Total hardness as CaCOs 

Scale-forming constituents d 

Foaming constituents^ 

Chemical character ■. . 

Probability of corrosion e 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic use 



17 
Trace. 
6.6 
2.0 
9.8 
.0 
28 
15 
2.3 
5.0 
75 
(i25 
40 
26 

Na-COs 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



25 

.18 
3.9 
2.0 
14 

.0 
30 
6.6 
12 

.18 

67 

dl8 

40 

38 

Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



0.14 



0.10 



Trace. 



Trace. 



12 
.0 

38 
6.0 
2.6 



6.0 
3.4 



.0 
34 
6.0 
3.0 



10 

.0 
32 
7.0 

2.8 



d71 

18 
45 
30 

Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



d64 
16 
40 
20 

Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



20 

4c 
20 

Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



<i67 
18 
45 
30 

Nat-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



"For location and other descriptive information see pp. 108-109. 

''For methods used in analj'ses and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 

c Approximations; for methods used in assays and reliability of results see pp. 52-60. 

d Computed. 

« Based on computed quantity; (?)=eorrosion uncertain, N=noncorrcsive. 

RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. 

Only one spring (No. 11, PL II) was visited in Weston. It is on 
a hillside and its water is piped by gravity to the house below. 



WcUs dug in till in Weston. 



No. on 
PI. TI. 


Owner. 


Topographic 
situation. 


Eleva- 
tion 
above 
sea 
level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 


Rig. 


Remarks. 


1 




Slope 

do 


Feet. 
360 
390 
340 
370 
425 
310 
315 
270 
330 
400 
380 
425 
425 
350 
250 
215 

315 
155 

295 
190 

300 

420 

360 
315 


Feet. 
8.9 
22.5 
22.6 
24.8 
15.3 
22.5 
16.6 
11.7 
11.6 
10.9 
28.2 
21.5 
13.7 
15.6 
13.8 
11.5 

11.6 
16.3 

11.8 
17.2 

18.4 

21.0 

28.7 
17.7 


Feet. 

6.9 

21.8 

18.9 

'i4V4' 
21.7 
14.8 
9.0 
7.4 
6.2 
23.2 
18.4 
1L2 
15.3 
12.0 
7.9 

9.7 
14.6 

7.7 
14.9 

15.1 

16.4 

23.8 
12.3 


Feet. 
2.0 
0.7 
3.7 

Dry. 
0.9 
0.8 
1.8 
2.7 
4.2 

■ 4.7 
5.0 
3.1 
2.5 
0.3 
1.8 
3.6 

1.9 
L7 

4.1 
2.3 

3.3 

4.6 

4.9 

5.4 


Chain pump 

do 


Fails. 


2 




Do. 


3 




...do 


Windlass rig 

Two-bucket rig. . 
do 


Nonfailing. 
Fails. 


4 




....do 


5 




. ...do 


Do. 


6 




do 


do 


Do. 


7 




do 


do 


Nonfailirig. 
Do. 


8 




.do 


do 


9 




do 


do 


Do. 


10 




do 


. .do 


Fails. 


12 




do 


\Vin41ass rig 

Chain pump 

Sweep rig 

Two bucket rig. . 
do 


Do. 


14 




. .do 


Do. 


15 




do 




16 




do 


Do. 


17 




.do 


Nonfailing. 


18 
19 


Lafayette Beers 


do 

do 


Sweep rig 

Windlass rig 

House pump and 
two-bucket rig. 
do 


Nonfailing. 
For analysis see 
p. 108. 

Fails. 


20 
21 


F. W. Hawly.. 


do 

Swale 

Plain 

Knoll 

Slope 

Hilltop 

Slope 


Nonfailing. 
Do. 


, 22 
23 


Mary L. Fanton 


Two-bucket rig. 

House pump and 
windlass rig. 

M^indlass and 
counterbal- 
ance rig. 
do 


Nonfailing. For 
assay see p. 108. 
Nonfailing. 


24 




Do. 


26 




Fails. 


27 


John R.Cole... 


do 


Nonfailing. 
For analysis see 
p. 108. 



WESTPOKT. 



109 



W<llfi (Itti/ in fill in AVcslon — Continued. 



No. on 
PI. U. 


Owner. 


Topographic 
situation. 


Eleva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 


Uig. 


Remarks. 


2S 




do 


Feet. 
325 
315 

190 

280 
100 

225 
230 
110 


Feet. 
21.0 
21.0 

17.5 

20.8 

m. 4 

15.4 
14.5 
24.8 


Feet. 
10.7 


Feet. 

4 3 


Two-bucket rig.. 
Wheel and axle 

rig- 
Two-bucket rig.. 

..do 




29 


...do. 


17.7 3.3 


Nonfailing. 

Fails. For as- 
say see p. 108. 

Nonfailing. 

Nonfailing. For 
assay see p. 108. 

Nonfailing. 
Do 


30 
31 


Mrs. Sutum 


do 

HIateau 

Slope 

do 


16.3 

12.8 
12.8 

12.6 
10.3 
23.8 


1.2 

8.0 
3.6 

2.8 
4.2 
1.0 


34 

3:. 




(!. Jacob! 


Deep-wellpump 
andhousepump 
One-bucket rig.. 
Two-bucket rig.. 
Windlass rig 


3r> 




Ho 


37 




do 


Do 











Wells dug in stratified drift in Weston. 



^-™| owner. 

1 
i 


Topographic 
situation. 


Eleva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 


Rig. 


Remarks. 


13 

25 




Slope 


Feet. 
180 
ISO 
80 
95 
130 

125 


Feet. 
15.6 
31.0 
2,817 
33.7 
21.5 

20.3 


Feet. 
13.7 
30.7 
2.5.8 
30.7 
20.1 

19.6 


Feet. 
1.9 
.3 
2.9 
3.0 
1.4 

. 7 


Two-bucket rig. 

Windlass rig . . . 

Two-bucket rig. 

do 

do 






Plain 

Slope 

do 

Plain 

do 


Fails. 


32 




Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. For 
assay see p. 108. 
Nonfailing. 


33 

38 


Harriet B.Cciey 


39 


Windlass rig . . . 









WESTPORT. 

AREA, POPULATION. AND IXDU.STKIES. 

Westport is one of the shore towns of Connecticut, and is near the 
middle of the Long Island Sound boundary of Fairfield County, just 
east of Xorwalk and midway between Bridgeport and Stamford. 
The area of the town is about 20 sqiuire miles. Most of Westport is 
cleared, but there are patches of woodland here and there which ag- 
gregate 1 square miles or a fifth of the total area of the town. The 
territory was taken from Fairfield, Xorwalk, and Weston and in- 
corporated as a separate town in 1835. In 1910 the population was 
4,259, an increase of 242 over the population of 1900. There are about 
217 inhabitants to the square mile. The following table shows 
the population at each census since the town was founded and also 
tlie percentage of change during the preceding decade : 
Population of Westport, 18.'t0-t910.'^ 



Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


1.S40 


1,803 
2,a51 
3,293 
3,361 


+47' 

4-24 
-f 2 


ISSO 


3, 477 -1-3 


1H,50 


1S90 


3,715 -f7 


lSt)0 


1900 


4,017 +8 


1S70 


1910 


4, 259 4-« 









a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 641. 



110 GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AKD OTHER x\REAS, CONE". 

For the first 35 years there was a rapid growth, which was due 
in part to the opening of the New York & New Haven Railroad 
in 1849, and in part to the establishment of manufactures of cotton 
and leather. Since then there has been a steady though moderate 
growth. Westport is now primarily a district of country residences 
belonging to New York people. It is probable that because of the 
nearness of New York City and the excellent transportation facili- 
ties the population of Westport will continue to grow. 

Westport is the principal settlement and is at the head of the 
estuary of Saugatuck Eirer. Nearer the mouth is the village of 
Saugatuck. A third settlement, Greens Farms, is on the Sound near 
the southeast corner of the town. There are about 70 miles of high- 
ways in the town. About 5 miles of the Boston Post Eoad, one of 
the State trunk-line highways, lies vrithin the area. There are also 
3 or 4 miles of roads built with State aid. The grades are in gen- 
eral moderate, and the road surfaces are vreil kept. There is trolley 
connection from Westport village along the Boston Post Eoad to 
Bridgeport and Stamford, and along the west shore of Saugatuck 
River to Saugatuck, and thence eastward to Compo Beach. The 
main line of the New York, Nev\' Plaven & Plartford Railroad runs 
east and west across the town half a mile to a mile from the Sound 
shore. It has a station at Saugatuck known as " Westport and 
Saugatuck " and also a station at Greens Farms. There are post 
offices at Westport, Saugatuck, and Greens Farms, and rural de- 
livery from Westport to the outlying districts. 

The principal industries of Westport are agriculture and the 
manufacture of cotton twine, buttons, embalming fluid, undertaker's 
supplies, mattresses and cushions, hatter's leather, and starch. 

SUEFACE FEATURES. 

The features characteristic of the western higlilands of Connecti- 
cut are found in Westport in a form modified by nearness to the sea. 
The hills and ridges show a distinct north-south alinement. The 
hills a mile or so back from the shore are 100 to 180 feet high. 
The hills farther inland are higher, and the greatest elevation in 
the town is on a ridge in the northeast corner, which has its crest 
240 feet above sea level. The valleys in general trend southward. 
The valley of Saugatuck River is at least 200 feet deep at Westport 
village. The rock walls rise 120 feet above the water level, and 
soundings for abutments for a new bridge showed that in places 
the rock floor is at least 80 feet below sea level. These facts show 
that the coast formerly stood higher than it does now and that it 
has been depressed. In this way the valley of the Saugatuck has 
been drowned and made an estuary. Mud Brook valley, though 
smaller, has had a similar history, and Sherwood Pond is its estuary. 



WESTPORT. Ill 

Most of Westport is ilraiiied hy Sau^atuck lliver, which enters 
the town near the northwest corner. Half a mile south of the Wes- 
ton town line it is joined by Aspetuck Iviver, Avhich flows |)arallel to 
the north boundary. Several other tributaries, includinjr its West 
Branch. Stony Brook, and Deadman Brook, enter Sau^atuck River. 
Sasco Brook. Mud Brook, and two other unnamed short bi'ooks drain 
the soutlieastern part of the town and dischartje directly into Lon^- 
Island Sound. 

A\" ATEIt-P.KARIKO FORM A'lION S. 

(7}}els^. — The following bedrock formations liave boon recoirnizcd 
in Westport:^ The Thonui^^ton granite gneiss, the Danbiny granodio- 
rite gneiss, and the Waterbury gneiss. 

All of the area west of Saiigatuck Eiver and a strip cast of the 
river 2 miles wide along the shore and 1 mile wide at the north 
!)oundary, an area a quarter to half a mile wide extending along vSasco 
Brook for •! miles above its mouth, and a little area in the northeast 
corner of the toAvn are underlain by the Thomaston granite gneiss. 
These areas aggregate over 13 square miles. The Thomaston is a 
typical granite gneiss composed of medium coarse grains of feld- 
spar quartz, flakes of black mica, and minor accessor}- minerals. The 
mic;i is more or less perfectly segregated in narroAv bands. The 
mica flakes are roughly parallel to one another and give the rock its 
cleaval'lc character. This rock is in general light gray in color, but 
some phases of it are pink. 

The Danbury granodiorite giieiss is similar to the Thomaston 
granite gneiss except that the black mineral is in large part horn- 
blende insteaid of mica. This formation underlies about 3^ square 
miles in a strip a mile and a quarter wide and including Prospect 
Hill. From Prospect Hill the band runs west and north-northwest 
to the Wilton town line. 

Tlie bedrock of the remainder of the town (3 square miles) is the 
Wuterbur}- gneiss. One patch, half a mile wide at its north end 
and a mile and a half wide along the Sound, extends northward 2 
miles from Greens Farms. A second small patch lies near the north 
part of the east boundary. Originally this rock was a series of sand- 
stones and shales but was converted by metamorphism to a schist. 
Contemporaneouslj- with or subsequently to the metamorphism there 
was injected into it a great deal of igneous material. Most of these 
intrusions are thin granitic sheets that follow- the schistose layers or 
cross them here and there like dikes. About three-quarters of a 
mile west of Sasco Brook on the Boston post road there is a trap 
dike about 60 feet wide, which outcrops on both sides of the high- 
vvay and may be traced a little way beyond. 

'Gregory, n. B., anrt Robinson, II. IT., rrelitninary geological mfi[) of Connecticut: 
Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1007. 



112 GROUJ^^D WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

All the bedrock formations of Westport carry water in the same 
way and in equal abundance. There are no porous zones of conse- 
quence, and there is no interstitial water. Water may be recovered in 
moderate amounts by means of drilled wells, a good many of which 
have been made in Westport. The water is carried in part in joints 
formed by the original cooling and shrinkage of the rock, and in 
part in fissures formed by the compressive stresses to which the 
rock has been subjected. The ground water of the overlying soil 
mantle is derived from rain water by absorption and is in part 
discharged into the maze of intercommunicating joints and fissures 
in the bedrock. The probability is that a drill hole sunk at any point 
will cut one or more of these water-bearing fissures within a rather 
short distance and obtain a satisfactory supply of water. Statistics of 
a number of such wells in Westport are given in the table on page 117. 

Till. — The mantle rock of the higher portions of Westport, com- 
prising three-fifths of the total area, is till — a dense deposit com- 
posed of rock flour, clay, silt, and sand, which form a matrix in 
which are embedded pebbles and boulders. The distribution of the 
larger fragments is entirelj^ fortuitous. The till was made by the 
abrading action of the glacier, which moved over the region in a 
southerly direction. The mantle of residual soil or decayed rock 
formed in preglacial time and some of the fresh, unweatliered rock 
below were scraped away and carried along by the ice. The load 
of debris was in part carried to the southern edge of the ice sheet, 
but most of it was plastered like a blanket over the glaciated rock 
surface. The weight of the ice sheet tended to pack the till, so that 
the grains interlock and make a dense, tough material. There are 
many minute interstices that are capable of absorbing part of the 
rain that falls. The water first soaks downward through the till until 
it is deflected horizontally, and then it moves along until it is 
naturally discharged again at the surface in springs or swamps. The 
water may also be artificially recovered by digging wells in the till. 
Late in October and early in I^ovember, 1916, 49 such wells were 
visited in Westport. Of these wells 25 are said by the owners to be 
nonfailing and 13 are said to fail. The reliability of the other 11 
wells could not be ascertained. The data collected concerning these 
wells are tabulated in detail on pages 115-116 and are summarized in 
the following table : 

Summary of tvells dug in till in Westport. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth to 
water. 


Depth of 

water in 

well. 




Feet. 
31.9 
10.0 
18.1 


Feet. 
24.8 
6.9 
14.7 


Feet. 
11 4 




.6 




3.4 







WKSTroirr. 



113 



Sfiatifvd drift. — The low-lyino- portions of AVostpoit, !ii;i!;iv<;atin<:!j 
two-Ht'ths of the total area, are covered \\\\\\ stratified drift, whicli 
includes all niatoiials that have been sorted and deposited in beds 
and lenses, in each of which the sand or gravel is of essentially 
uniform size. 

The stratified drift of the broad valley east of Saugatuck Kiver 
in the northAvestern part of the town and that west of Saseo Brook 
seem i)robably to be of glaciofluviatile origin. When the glacier 
receded from this region many streams of melt water flowed from it 
and carried heavy loads of debris, which were deposited in front of 
the glacier. These deposits may, however, bo later deposits analo- 
gous to the alluvium of the flood plains of the present streams. The 
principal reason for supposing them to be glacial outwash is 'that 
they extend 40 or .lO feet above the present stream level. In a zone 
a mile or so wide along the shore of Long Island Sound are deposits 
of stratified drift which may be of marine origin and analogous to 
the present sands and gravels of the beaches. 

In the ])resent discussion the origin of these deposits is of less 
importance than their character and distribution. The map (PI. Ill) 
shows the areas of stratified drift. The stratified drift is formed 
in large part by the reworking of the till. The porosity in terms of 
tlie percentage of the whole volume not occupied by sand or other 
grains is greater than in till, and the individual pores are larger, 
so that the circulation of ground w^ater is greatly stimulated. Wells 
dug in stratified drift are likely to yield more abundant supplies 
than wells dug in till. Fourteen such Avells were visited in AYest- 
port and of these eight were said to be nonfailing. The data col- 
lected are given in detail in the table on pages 116-117 and are sum- 
marized in the followinji table : 



fSKJinnari/ of irclls in -^1 ratified drift in U'c-s7po/f. 



MaxiJiium 
Minimum 
Average.. 



Total 


Depth to 


depth. 


water. 


Fed. 


Frft. 


27.8 


26.4 


S. .i 


6.4 


17.1 


LVO 



Depth of 

water in 

well. 



Feet. 



3.9 
1.0 
2.1 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

The accompanying table gives the results of two analyses and 
four assa3s of samples of ground water collected in the town of 
Westport. Xos. '24. 52, and 56 are very "soft and low in mineral 
content : the rest are soft and only moderately mineralized. In so 
far as cliemical analysis may be used as a criterion the waters are 
acceptable for domestic use. No. 24, however, is so high in nitrate 
154444°— 20 8 



114 GKOUlsTD WATER IN NOEWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

that a sanitary inspection would be warranted. Nos. 49 and 55 are a 
little high in scale-forming ingredients and are therefore rated as 
fair for use in boilers, but the rest are probably good for boiler use. 

Nos. 24, 39, and 56 are sodium-carbonate waters, Nos. 49 and 52 
are calcium-carbonate in type, and No. 55 is a calcium-chloride 
water. 

Sample 39 was collected from a well dug into sandy soil a few 
hundred feet from the shore at Compo Beach. It is probable that 
the relatively high chloride content, 30 parts per million, is due to 
the proximity to salt water and frequent blowing over of salt spray, 
and not to pollution by either salt water or sewage. The low value 
of the nitrates and the cleanly surroundings of the well indicate 
that the water is not polluted by sewage. Sea water contains about 
3.3 per cent of dissolved matter, of which about 55 per cent is 
chloride. This is equivalent to 1.815 per cent, or 18,160 parts per 
million. A mixture of one part of sea Avater with about 600 parts 
of pure water would contain about 36 parts per million of chloride. 
Therefore it seems more reasonable to ascribe the high chloride in 
this well to salt spray blown onto the surrounding soil and leached 
out than to infiltration of sea water. 

Cliciiiical coniijositioii and classification of ground iraters in Weslport." 

[Parts per million: collected Dec. S, 1916; analyzed by Alfred A . Chambers and C. H. Kidwell. Numbers 
, , of analyses and assays correspond to those used on PI. II.] 



Silica (SiOs) 

Iron(Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium (Na) 

Potassium (K) 

Carbonate radicle (COi) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCOs) — 

Sulphate radicle (SCj) - . 

Chloride radicle (Cl) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total dissolved solids at 180° C , 

Total hardiiess as CaCOs , 

Scale-forming constituents «... 
Foaming constituents «. 



Chemical character 

Proljability of corrosion / - 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic use. 



Analyses. 6 



19 

.12 
8.9 
2.1 

\ t 17 

.0 

34 

18 

7.0 

14 

104 

e31 

49 

46 

Na-COs 

(?) 
Good. 
Good. 



d39 



Assays. 



11 

.32 
22 
6.0 
f 32 
I 4.7 
.0 
90 
49 
30 
4.4 
218 
e 80 
86 
100 

Na-COs 

(?) 
Good. 
Good. 



0.35 



e23 

100' 
17 
10 



« 150 
68 
95 
60 

Ca-COa 

N 

Fair. 

Good, 



0.46 



ell 

.0 

38 
10 

8.4 



32 
55 
30 

Ca-COs 

(?) 
Good. 
Good. 



C17 

27" 
27 
49 



« 170 

85 
110 
50 

Ca-Cl 

(?) 
Fair. 
Good. 



Trace. 



.0 

45 i 
12 

7.4 



e93 
32 



40 



Na-COa 

N 
Good. 
Good. 



a For location and other descriptive information see pp. 115-117. 

6 For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 

c Approximations; for methods used in assays and reliability of results see pp. 52-60. 

d Collected Dec. 9, 1916. 

« Computed. 

/ Based on computed quantity; (?)= corrosion uncertain, N=noncorrosive. 

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 

The Westport Water Co. has been supplying water since 1892. 
The source of supply at present consists of two wells (Nos. 66 and 67, 



WESTPORT. 



115 



PI. II) dug in the stratified drift of the flood plain of Saugatuck 
Kiver a little north of tlu' vilhigc Water is pumped from these 
wells by two Gould triplex, singlo-uotiug pumps vritli 8 by 10 inch 
cylinders, driven at 40 revolutions a minute by electric motors. 
There is also an auxiliary direct-acting Blake steam puuip. The 
water is deliyered to a 240,000-gallon steel staudpipe on a hill half a 
mile north of the village. From the standpipo the water runs by 
gi-aA'ity through 20.2 miles of main to 81 hydrants and 544 service 
taps, of which 370 are metered. The normal pressure is 00 to 65 
pounds to the square inch, but by pumping direct into the mains it 
may be increased to 90 pounds for fire sei-vice. Of the 3,400 people 
in the area served, about 3,200 are supplied and consume about 
240.000 gallons a day. According to Mr. F, B. Hnbbell, the superin- 
tendent of the company, the wells are dug in moderately coarse 
gravel. The "old" well (No. 66) on the east side of the Saugatuck 
is rectangular, 20 feet wide and 40 feet long, and 10 or 11 feet <leep. 
It usually contains G or 7 feet of water. The " new '" well {So. 67) 
is on the west side of the Saugatuck and is connected with the pump- 
i)ig plant by a suction main a quarter of a mile long. This well is 
circular, 30 feet in diameter, and about the same depth as the older 
well. The wells will yield together about 50,000 gallons an hour.^ 
Both wells are roofed to keep out wind-blown foreign matter and the 
water is effectually filtered in percolating through the sand and 
gravel of the flood plain. The water is of good quality and is of suf- 
ficient abundance to care for a slowly growing population. At all 
events the flood plain of Saugatuck River can be made to yield muck 
more water by the construction of additional wells. 

KECoims or wells. 
Wells dug in till in Westport. 



Xo. 

on 

PI. IT. 


O^vner. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 


Ele- 
va- 
tion 
above 
sea 
level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 


Rig. 


Remarks. 


1 




Slope 

...do 


Feet. 
1(50 
100 

80 
115 
230 
230 
190 
205 
125 
150 

125 
135 
120 

130 


Fat. 
23.9 
18.6 

16.0 
10.8 
23.0 
20.5 
15. 9 
20.4 
19.7 
25. 5 

15.2 
23.0 
29.5 
17.5 


Feet. 

12. 5 
16.0 

14.6 
8.3 
21.4 
19.2 
9.7 
16.6 
16.8 
18.4 

13.2 
21.2 
24.1 

14.6 , 


Feet. 

11.4 Two-bucket ri^'.... 

2. 6 Two-bucket r i g 

and house pump. 

1. 4 Two-bucket rig. . . . 

2.5 do 

1.6 Windlnssrif 










s 
9 




...do 

...do 


Xon'.ailing. 


10 




...do 


Fails. 


11 




...do 


1.3 
6.2 


do .\ 


Do. 


12 




Swale 

Plateau 

Knoll 

Plateau 

Slope 

. .. do 


Onp-hnekAt rif 




14 


F. L. Church.... 


3.8 . ... T ... 




15 


2.9 Windlass rig 

7. 1 Two-hncket. rii? 


Non failing 


16 






!7 




2.0 
1.8 
5.4 


do 


bottom. 
Fails 


IS 




do 




19 




Plateau 

...do 


do 




20 




2.9 1 do 


Abandoned. 



1 Connecticut Public Utilities Commission Kept., 1917 



116 GKOUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 
Wells (lug in till in West port — Continued. 



G. P. Jennings.. 



Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 



Slope. 
..do.. 



.do. 
.do. 



.do. 



..do.. 
..do.. 
..do... 
Hill... 
Slope. 
..do., 
do.. 



.do. 



..do 

..do 

Hilltop. 

Plateau. 
Slope 



.do. 



..do.. 
Plain. 
Slope. 
Plain. 
Slope 

..do.. 



.do. 
.do. 
-do. 



.do. 



.do. 
.do. 



Ele- 
va- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level 



Plain. 



Total 
depth 



Feet. 
90 
175 



120 

190 
120 
100 
105 
95 
60 
45 
80 

.55 
20 
30 

140 
130 



10 
130 



Feet. 
24.0 
16.4 

11.3 

18.4 



17.5 

IS. 9 
13.6 
24.5 
17.9 
14.1 
14.8 
18.3 
18.4 

26.0 
12.6 
31.9 

19.0 
27.6 

12.1 

14.1 
12.9 
11.0 
16.1 
10.0 

10.5 

11.0 
19.8 
14.8 
20.0 



11.1 

15.4 



Depth 

to 
water. 



Feet. 
19.8 
14.9 

9.0 
16.9 



13.5 

17.3 
6.9 
23.2 
17.0 
12.0 
12.5 
10.3 
16.0 

20.8 
11.9 
21.2 

15.2 
24.8 

10.4 

10.6 
9.6 
10.1 

13.8 
8.0 

9.9 

9.7 

17.6 
12.5 
14.8 



9.2 

14.4 



Depth 

of 
water 

in 
weli; 



Feet. 
4.2 

1.0 

2.3 

1.5 



4.0 

1.6 
6.7 
1.3 
0.9 
2.1 
2.3 
8.0 
2.4 



0.7 
10.7 

3.8 

2.8 

1.7 

3.5 
3.3 
0.9 
2.3 
2.0 

0.6 

1.3 
2.2 
2.3 
5.2 



1.9 
1.0 



Rig. 



Windlass rig 

Two-bucket rig 

and house pump . 

Two-bucket rig 

Two-bucket rig 

and air-pressure 

system. 
Two-bucket r i g 

andhousepump. 

Two-bucket rig 

....do 

House pump 

Chain pump 

Two-bucket rig 

do 
do. 



Chain pump and 
house pump. 

Chain pump 

Two-bucket rig. . . . 
•Chain pump 



Two-bucket rig 

Windlass rig and 

house pump. 
Chain pump and 

house pump. 

Sweep rig 

Two-bucket rie 

do 

Chain pump , 

do , 



Two-bucket rig. . . 



Chain pump 

Windlass rig 

Two-bucket rig 

Two-bucket r i g 

and house 

pump. 

Chain pump 

Two-bucket rig 

and house 

pump. 
Windlass rig 



Remarks. 



Nonfailing. 
Nonfailing. Rock 
bottom. 

Do. 

Do. 



Do. 



Do. 
Fails. 
Do. 

Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Fails. 



Do. 
NonfaiUng. Rock 

10 feet. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing 

Fails. 
Do. 

Nonfailing. For 
assay see p. 114. 

Fails. Rock bot- 
tom. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing. 
Do. 



Do. 
Do. 



Do. 



Wells- dug in stratified drift in Westport. 



No. on 
PI. II. 


Owner. 


Topographic 
situation. 


Ele- 
vation 
above 

sea 
level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Depth 

of 
v/ater 

in 
well. 


Rig. 


Remarks. 


2 




Plain 


Feet. 

135 

130 

160 

55 

75 

15 
20 
55 

25 


Feet. 
18.5 
27.8 
22.5 
18.9 
18.6 

10.1 

"ii.'e' 
ii.fi 


Feet. 
16.9 
26.4 
20.7 
16.2 
12.0 

6.4 
12.0 
10.6 

7.7 
22.1 


Feet. 
1.6 

1.4 
1.8 
2.7 
1.6 

3.7 


Two-bucket rig. . 
.do 




3 




do 




4 




do 


do 




5 




do 


do 




6 




do 


Windlass rig and 
house pump. 


Nonfailing. 


21 




Slope 

Ridge 

Plain 

Slope 

Plain 


Do. 


22 






(a) 


24 
34 


G. W. Harris... 


1.0 
3.9 


Two-bucket rig. . 
....do 


Nonfailing. For 
analysis see 
p. 114. 

Nonfailing. 


37 




25 i 23. 3 


1.2 


"Wiudlass rig 


Do. 



a Three attempts to make driven wells have been made on this bar. A little fresh water was obtained 
in each at 12 to 14 feet, but below this only salt water was found. 



WILTON. 



117 



M'rlls (1(1(1 ill ytratifi((l iliijt in ll'r.s7/)or/ — ('(iiitiimcd. 



No. on 
11. II. 



MciTill (.'ault. 

John Barlow.. 
B.F.BuUdeyJr 



Westport Wa- 

tiT Co. 
do 



Topocruphic 
situation. 



Ploiio . 
riain. 



Slope . . . 
Terrace . 



Slope . . 
Plain.. 
do. 



Ele- 
vation 
above 

soa 
level. 



Fed. 
25 
10 



25 



depih. '" 



Feet. 
21.9 

8.5 



11.7 
25. G 



13.1 
11.0 
11.0 



Feet. 

20.0 

0.5 



8.7 
21.3 



10.9 
4.0 



Depth 

of 
water 

ill 
well. 



Fret. 
1.9 
2.0 



3.1) 
1.3 



2.2 
7.0 



liijr. 



Kt'iiiark 



Two-l)Uckct riR.' Nonfailiiij;. 



Two-bucktt rig . 

Windla.ss and 
couiiterba 1- 
ance ri-;. 



Chain puiii] 



Nonfuilinf,'. For 
aiiulvsi.s see 
p. 114." 

Xoiifailing. For 
assay seep. 114. 

N o n f a i 1 i n g . 
Never loss than 
14 inches of 
water. Rock 
bottom. For 
assay see p. 114. 

Noiifailins;. For 
assay see p. 114. 

Nonf ailing. 



a The water from this well is quite potable, though slightly salty. Satisfactory supplies are obtained 
by wells S feet deep on the plain around this well. Deeper wells yield salty water. 
b Further information on these wells is given in the discussion of pulilic water supplies on p. 114-115 > 

Drilled ircll-s in ^\'e.stl)ort. . 




a Data from Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol, 



" I'aia iroin vrregorv, n. n.., anu r. 

Survey WatCT-Supply Paper 232, 1909. 



WILTON. 



AREA, POPULATIOX, AND INDUSTRIES. 

Wilton lies a little soutliwest of the center of Fairfield County, and 
on the west touches New* York State. Norwalk and Ridgefield lie 
respectively to the south and north. The area of the town is 28 
s<}iiare miles. There are woods scattered over the town, but espe- 
cially along the west and north margins. They have an aggregate 
area of a little over 12 square miles or 45 per cent of the whole area 
of the town. 

The first settlement in Wilton was made from Norwalk about 1701, 
and in 1726 it had become large enough to be organized as Wilton 
Parish. In 1S02 the territory was incorporated as a separate town. 
Tlie population in 1910 Avas 1,700, an incrciise of 108 over the pre- 
\ ious census return. There are about 60 inhabitants to the square 



.118 GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, COISTISr. 



mile. The following table shows the changes in population since 
1810 : 

Foptilation of Wilton, 1810 to 1910." 



1810 
1820 
1830 
1S40 
1850 
1860 



Popula- 
tion. 



1,728 
1,818 
2.097 
2; 053 
2,06G 
2, 20s 



Per cent 
change. 



+ 15 
-2 

+ 1 
+7 



1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1910 



Popula- 
tion. 



1,994 
l,86i 
1,722 
1,598 
1,706 



Per cent 
cliange. 



a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915, p. C5G. 

There was in general a fair growth until 1860, followed by a con- 
siderable diminution until 1900. The last decade has shown a slight 
increase. Since 1890 there have been fewer people in Wilton than 
there were in 1810. As in manj^ other portions of New England, 
the loss of population in the middle and later parts of the nineteenth 
century is to be ascribed to the greater attractions of other regions. 
Some of the emigrants went to the manufacturing towns near by, 
and others vrent to the richer and more easily tilled farming regions 
in the AYest. During the last decade a number of country" residences 
have been built in Wilton. With the development of good roads and 
of the automobile Wilton has become quite accessible, and its scenic 
value is being realized and developed. It is probable that this 
growth will continue for some time, but it seems improbable that 
there will be any large settlements in the near future. 

The principal settlements are Wilton and Cannondale on Norwalk 
Eiver: Parts of Georgetown and Branch ville spread over into Wilton. 
North Wilton and Bald Hill Street northwest of Wilton, and Hurl- 
butt Street to the east are small villages. The Norwalk and Danburj^ 
turnpike follows the valley of Norw^^lk River through Wilton. 
This 8-mile piece of road and a piece 5 miles long from Wilton 
through North Wilton and Bald Hill Street to the Eidgefield town 
line are State trunk-line roads. The town keeps in repair about 60 
miles of dirt road. The Danbury branch of the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford Eailroad, which joins- the main line at South 
NorM-alk, also follows Norwalk River through the tow^n. It has 
stations at South Wilton, Wilton, Cannondale, Georgetown, and 
Branchville. There are post offices at Wilton, Cannondale, and 
Georgetown, and rural-delivery routes have been established over 
all the town. Agriculture is the principal industry. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The topography of Wilton is rugged and diveisificd. Between the 
valleys are ridges and elongated hills which trend north and south. 
In the northern part of the town the crests have elevations of 620 



WILTON. 



119 



to 660 feet above sea level. Sepaiated from this lii^lilinid l.y a zone 
about 2 miles wide for wliich no <j;eiieral statemeiil of elevation ean 
be made is the southern part of (he town, in Avhich the liilhoi)s nin»e 
from 360 to 400 feet above sea level. The set of projected hill pi'o- 
files in fioure 16 shows how these two groups of hills have a steplike 
relation to eaeli other. The sections bear about north-northwest. 
Tliese hilltops are believed to be fragments of an old plnin or stepped 




yorvy^T^py^-i 



Vertical scale about Z'/z times the horizontal 

I'liirni: ic. — I'r.gciti'd uoith-souni profile acru.s.s WilldU showiu';- ti'iraced charaftci; of 

the plateau. 

plain which has been uplifted and had valleys cut in it. Xorwalk 
River is the master stream and has the deepest valley. A comparison 
of figure 17, which is an east-west profile across Wilton on the line 
B-B\ on the maps (Pis. II and III), with the composite north-south 
profile of figure 16 will bring out tliese points. The lowest point in 
AVilton is where Norwalk River crosses the south boundary at an ele- 
vation of 110 feet above sea level, and the greatest elevation. 700 feet, 
is near the west end of the north boundary. 

A strip of country 2 to 1 miles wide through the middle of the 
town is drained by NorAvalk River and its tributaries. On one 
tributary, betvreen Wilton and 

North Wilton, is the North -» b' 

Wilton reservoir of the South 
Xorwalk waterworks. The 
vcest margin of Wilton is in 
the drainage basin of Silver- 
mine River, and includes three 
of the reservoirs of the South 
Norwalk supply. The south part of the east border is drained by 
the West Branch of Saugatuck River. 

AVATER-P.EARING FOmrATIOXS. 

Gneiss and schist. — Four varieties of bedrock have been recognized 
in Wilton.^ The Becket granite gneiss, Avhich underlies a strip half 
a mile wide along the south boiuidary, is a schist into which have 
been injected many thin dikes and sheets of igneous rock, chiefly 
granitic. The injected material is so abundant that it gives the 
rock its dominant character. 




Vertical 5Cale about 2'/2 tiTiestiie horizon 



Fir,ri!E 17. — Pi-ofile across Wilton (section 
B-Ii' on Pis. II and III) showing dissec- 
tion of the terraced pin lean. 



' Gregory, H. E., and Robinson, II. II., rreJiminary geological map of Connecticut : 
Connecticut Geo!, and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 



120 GROUND WATEE IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

The Berkshire schist, Avhich underlies tiie valley of Norwalk River 
north of Hovey Hill, is a gray mica schist, composed essentially of 
quartz and mica. It has been extensively injected by granite intru- 
sions but not to the same degree as the Becket granite gneiss, which 
in places it closely resembles. The injected material has feldspar in 
addition to quartz and mica so that it is more massive than the lam- 
inated schists. There has been some development of red garnet and 
of staurolite in the limy parts of the schist. 

The bedrock of Hovey Hill and Sturgis Eidge is the Thomaston 
granite gneiss, as is also that of a strip a mile wide extending west 
from Chestnut Hill across Belden Hill to the west boundary and 
thence north to Ridgefield. This granite gneiss is a light-gray or 
pinkish-gray medium coarse grained rock, composed essentially of 
feldspar, quartz, and black mica — the minerals that characterize a 
granite. There are also small amounts of accessory minerals. Meta- 
morphism has produced gneissoid structure in the rock. Foliation 
planes, marked by concentration and parallel orientation of mica 
flakes, have been made. These foliation planes give the rock its 
banded appearance and its tendency to cleave along certain planes. 
Locally this rock is so strongly metamorphosed as to resemble the 
Becket gneiss. 

The middle part of the town, including Wilton, Comstock Knoll, 
Turner Ridge, North Wilton, and a strip northwest into Ridgefield 
is underlain by Danbury granodiorite. This rock is similar to the 
Thomaston granite gneiss except that the mica is in large part 
replaced by hornblende. 

The water-bearing properties of these four types of bedrock are 
alike and may be discussed together. These rocks have very little 
porosity, and no interstitial water is to be expected. The spaces 
between the grains are so minute that they can contain but little 
water, and their narrowness tends to increase friction and so retard 
circulation. The mechanical stresses to which the rocks, have been 
subjected have made many openings in them. These openings may 
be recognized as intersecting systems of joints and fissures. In gen- 
eral one set is horizontal or slightly inclined and is cut by one, two, 
or more vertical or steeply inclined sets of crevices. Their mutual 
intersection forms a ramifying and interconnecting network of 
channels through which water may circulate. Water from the satu- 
rated base of the overlying soil finds its way and circulates through 
the network of fissures and may be recovered by means of drilled 
wells. The data available concerning such wells in Wilton are given 
in the table on page 124. 

Till, — Till forms the mantle rock of most of Wilton. It is the 
product of direct glacial action and consists of the debris plucked and 
scraped up by the ice. The fragments have been carried along in the 



WILTON. 



121 



ice, rubbetl ii<i;;iinst one another and against the rock hetl on which the 
ice moved, and thus worn and polished and eventually deposited in a 
hetero<!;eneous mass. Pebbles, cobbles, ami boidders are embeilded in 
a dense matrix of the finely ground rock. The whok; mass is a very 
tough material, in part because of the compacting and pressing by 
tlie Aveight of the overlying ice and in part because the angular grains 
intorh)ck. This, interlocliing also tends to reduce tlie porosity of the 
till, for the smaller particles are fitted into the interstices of the 
larger ones. There is, however, much pore space, for the till absorbs, 
stores, and transmits large amounts of water. Wells, dugs into till 
Avill in general j^rocure supplies of water sufficient for domestic and 
farm needs. During late October and early November, 1916. 46 such 
wells were visited in "Wilton. Tavo were dry at the time, 10 more 
were said to fail, and '25 to be nonfailing. The reliability of the 
remaining 9 could not be ascertained. The data obtained are tabu- 
lated in detail on pages 122-12'^ and are summarize in the folloAving 

table: 

Sinuintni/ of ircZ/.s <litf/ in fill in Wilton. 



Maxiniuni - 
Minimum . 
Average... 



Total 
depth. 


Depth 1 
water. 


F((t. 
34.1 
7.0 
17.0 


Frrt. 
30. 9 
4.2 
13.6 



Depth of 
water in \ 
well. { 



Frrt. 



S.7 

.4 

3.1 



jSf/rifJfied (7/*//Y.— There are narrow areas of stratified drift along 
parts of the valley of Xorwalk River, and also in two broader val- 
leys, one near Bald Hill Street and one near Chestnut Hill. The 
distribution of these areas is shown on the map (PI. III). Streams 
Avhich have eroded the till have sorted and washed the constituents 
and redeposited them in the lowlands. The principal difference be- 
tween the two deposits is that the individual beds of the stratified 
drift contain only grains that have a narrow range of variation of 
size. The smaller grains have been removed, so that the interstices 
of the larger ones are open, and therefore the stratified drift is far 
more porous and a better water bearer than the till. Wells in the 
stratified drift are apt to give more abundant supplies than wells in till. 
Data were obtained concerning two driven and eight dug wells in 
stratified drift in Wilton. All are said to be nonfailing. The data 
collected are tabulated in detail on page 123 and are summarized in 
the following table : 

StniiiiKiri/ (if ircUx in stratifiid drift in Wilton. 



Ma.ximum . 
Minimum . 
A verage . . . 



Total 
depth. 


Frrt. 
21.3 
9.7 

l,-,.4 



DepthtolS^^J 
water 



water m 
well. 



Feet. 
19.8 i 

S.O 
13.3 ' 



Frrt. 



5.0 
1..5 

2.5 



122 GROUISTD WATER IN NOR WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 
QUALITY or GROUND WATER. 

The following table gives the results of two analyses and three 
assays of samples of ground water collected in the town of Wilton. 
The Avaters are all low in mineral content and are soft except Nos. 
56 and iGA, which are very soft. All are suitable for use in boilers 
and so far as ma,v be judged from their chemical composition are 
acceptable for domestic use. Nos. 29 and 43 are calcium-carbonate 
in type, and the rest sodium-carbonate. 

CJt.einical coinpo.sitio)t and cJa^^rficatlon of (jrotuul waters in Willoii." 

[Partsper million; collected Dec. 8, 1916; aualyzedby Alfred A. Chambers and C. 11. KidAvell. Numljcrsof 
analyses and assays correspond to those used on PI. II.] 



SilicaCSiOs)......... 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K)f' 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (IICO3) 

Sulph ate radicle (SO 1) 

Chloride radicle (Cl) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total dissolved solids at 1X0° C . . 

Total hardness as CaCOs 

Scale-forming constituents 'i 

Foaming constituents <' 

Chemical chai'acter 

Probability of corrosion ^ 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic use 



Analyses. t 



Assays. 



42 



27 

.38 
1.3 
4.9 
16 

.0 
.58 
16 
16 

1.2 

124 

d r:.i 

74 

•13 

Na-COa 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



10 

.04 
8.0 
3.6 
12 

.0 
37 
20 
0.2 
. 44 
82 
d 35 
40 
32 

Na-COa 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



11 

2.4 
70 
11 



rfllO 

57 

30 

Ca-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



43 



0..58 



8 
.0 
02 
12 

.5.2 



diOO 

54 
SO 
20 

Ca-COs 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



0.80 



.-..0 
4.0 



d70 
18 
45 
30 

Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



a For location and other descriptive information see pp. 122-124. 

b For methods used in analysis and accuracy of results sec pp. 52-00. 

c Approximations; for methods used in assays and reliability of results see pp. 52-00. 

d Computed. 

<: Based on comjnUcd quantity; (?) = corrosion uncertain, N=noncorro3ivc. 

RECORDS OF WELLS. 

Well': 'lug in till in Wilton. 



No. 

on 

ri.TI. 



OvmcT. 



Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 



Ele- 






Depth 


vation 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 


of 


above 
sea 


to 
water 


vrater 
in 


level. 






well. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


323 


10.2 


8.1 


2.1 


400 


15.1 


14.0 


1.1 


590 


9.9 


9.0 


.9 


595 


11.7 


8.4 


3.3 


600 


12.6 


9.0 


3.6 


550 


25.5 


20.2 


5.3 


575 


2S.1 


21.6 


6.5 


530 


13.7 


11. 


2.7 


530 


23.8 


15.1 


8.7 


465 


10.9 


7.6 


3.3 


480 


34.1 


30.9 


3.2 


610 


17.1 


16.5 


.6 


605 


17.0 


14.5 


2.5 


.520 


12.4 


10.4 


2.0 


610 


21.0 


16. Z 


4.8 


.560 


15.8 


14.0 


1.8 



Rig. 



Remarks. 



Gco.W 
frcy. 



God- 



Plain. 



Slope , 

do 

do.-.. 

do--.- 

do.-.. 

Ridge , 

Plateau — 

Slope 

.....do.... 

do---. 

do---. 

Ridge 



Slope -.- 
Ridge... 
Hilltop . . 



Sweep rig 



Chain pump . . . 

Sweep rig 

Two-bucket rig . 

Sweep rig 

Windlass rig . . . 
Two bucket rig . 

do 

Chain pump . . . 

Sweep rig 

Two-bucket rig . 

Sweep rig T. 

Two-bucket rig . 



.do. 
.do- 
.do. 



J^ontailing. 

Fails. 
Do. 

Nonfailing. Tiled. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 



Do. 

Fails. 

Fails. Rock, 

feet, 
Nonfailing. 
Fails, 
Nonfailing. 



WILTON. 

Wrlls iJufj in till in Wilton — Continued. 



123 



No. 

on 

ri.II. 



27 

27.V 

29 

30 

;iOA 

M 

32 

33 
34 
35 

36 
39 
40 

41 



Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 



.Slope. . 

do.. 

do.. 

E dw. W. I do.. 

Ol instead. 
do Hilltop . 



.do- 



SIopc. . 
do. 

do. 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



Plateau. 
Slope- .. 
do-. 



do- 

do. 

PUun.. 
Slope.. 

do. 



.do. 
.do. 



do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Swale.. 

Slope . - 



Ele- 
vation ,., . , 

level. I 



Feet. 
390 
.MO 
470 
420 

460 



330 
340 
245 

2S0 
275 
375 
370 

360 
365 
290 

210 
280 
260 
280 



315 

380 

275 
265 
290 
225 
260 
235 
285 
355 



Feet. 

S. 5 
15.5 
20.0 
19.1 

12.3 



7.0 
IS. 5 
16.5 

11.4 
13.2 
18.9 

IS. 2 

21.6 
12.3 
13.6 

15.1 
19.1 
22.7 
12.2 

29.2 

22.3 
31.6 

18.0 
15.4 
14.6 
14.0 
1.5.5 
2L1 
8.9 
25.5 



Dei>th 

lo 
water. 



Fed. 
5.6 
11.9 
19.6 

18.4 



17.0 

4.2 
17.5 
13.2 

9.9 
6.2 
14.7 
14.0 

18.2 
8.3 
8.1 

13. 5 
18. 5 
21.0 
9.S 

23.6 



13.4 
U.S 
10.9 

9.3 
12.7 
18.1 

6.1 



Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 



Feet. 

2.9 

3.0 

:4 



2.8 
1.0 
3.3 

1.5 
7.0 
4.2 

4.2 

3.4 
4.0 
5.5 



1.7 

2.4 



r>. .J 

Dry. 

1.0 
3.6 
3.7 
4.7 
2.8 
3.0 
2.8 
Dry. 



Sweep rii,' 

Chain pump. . . . 
Two-bucket lig . 
No rig 



Windlas.': rig and 
gravity .system. 

Two - liiicket rig 
and house jiunip. 

IIou.se pump 

No rig 

Two-bucket rig . . . 



Chain pump 

do 

Two-bucket rig 

Sweep rig and 
house pump. 

Two-bucket rig . . . 

do 

Windlass and pul- 
ley rig. 

Tv%o-buckct rig. . . 

do 

do 

Windlass riu 



Remarks. 



Nonlailiug." 

Fails. 

Fails. Rock, 6 

feet. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 



For 
122. 



Two-bucket rig 
W'indlass rig . . 

One-bucket rig 

do 

Two-bucket riy 

do 

do 

No rig 

Windlass rig. . 
Chain pump . . 



Do. 
Fails.6 
Nonfailing. 

assay see p. 
Nonfailing. t" 

Do.f 

Do. 

Do. 



Nonfailing. 



Do. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing. 

Fails. Rock bot- 
tom. 

Nonfailinr. Rock, 
4 feet. 

Fails. Rock, 22 
feet. 

Nonfailing. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 



Fail 



Do. 



n In a depression filled with till between two rock ledges. 

b Rock bottom well, on slope above well No. 27, and 150 feet distant 

<■ Well No. 30 southwest of house; No. 30A , northeast. 



irc//.s- dug in ."it ratified drift in V.'Uton. 



No. on 
PI. II. 



44 

45 

46 

46. \ 



Martin Harbs . 



New York, New 
Haven & Hart- 
ford R. R 



Irving Pleasant . 
do 



Topo- 
graphic 
situa- 
tion. 



Slope. 



Plain. 



do. 

do. 

Slope.. 



Miss U.S. Willing. 



Plain-.. 
do.. 

do.. 



Eleva- 




tion 

above 

sea 


Total 
depth. 


level. 




Feet. 


Fed. 


180 


21.3 


205 


9.7 


180 


12 


195 


18.0 


180 


15.9 


175 


18.5 


175 


18 


ISO 


11.5 


165 


11.2 


135 


17.8 



Depth 

to 
water. 



16.5 
14.0 
17.0 
13 



9.0 
9.5 
13.0 



Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 



Rig. 



Fed. Fed. 

19.8 1.5 Windlass rif 
and house 
'i pump. 

8.0 1.7 Deen-well pump. 



Pitcher pump. 



1.5 
1.9 
1.5 



Chain pump 

Two-bucket rig. 

do 

Pitcher pump. . 



2.5 j Two-bucket rig 

1.7 ! do 

4.S I do 



Remarks. 



Nonfailing 



Nonfailing. 

analysis 
122.* 

Nonfailing. 

en well 

assay see 

Nonfailing 

Do. 

Do. 

Nonfailing. 

en well. 

assay see 

Nonfailing 

Do. 
Nonfailing 
analysis 
122. 



For 
ce p. 

. Driv- 
. For 
p. 122. 



DriV' 

For 

p. 122. 



. For 
see p. 



124 GROUND WATER IN NOR WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

Drilled iveUs in Wilton. 



No. on 
PI. II. 


O^ATier. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situa- 
tion. 


Eleva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
rock. 


Depth 
to water 
in well. 


Dia- 
meter. 


Yield 

per 

minute. ; 


2 


John Ilollowell 

School 


Slope 

do. . 


Feet. 
320 
350 
465 
440 
370 
315 
360 
350 
375 
365 
550 


Feet. 
72 
200 

75 


Feet. 
14 


Feet. 


Inches. 


Gallons. 


3 










14 




....do 










25 


Street 


. do.... 










28 




....do 












38 




do . . 












61 


Egbert Lilly 


. ..do 












62 


Henry Finch 


do 












63 


r. M. Comstock 


do ... 












C3A 


.do 


do 












64 




do 


51 


15 


20 


6 


5 













EAST GRANBY. 

AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. 

East Granby is a farming town in the north-central part of Hart- 
ford County and lies about 15 miles north of the city of Hartford. 
The town has an area of about 18 square miles, of which nearly 8 
square miles, or 43 per cent, is woodland. The woods are well dis- 
tributed but are for the most part restricted to the hills. 

The territor}^ of East Granby was taken from Granby and Wind- 
sor Locks in 1858 and incorporated as a separate town. The popu- 
lation in 1910 was 797, an increase of 113, or 17 per cent, over the 
population in 1900. The following table shows the population at 
each census from 1860 to 1910, together with the per cent of change 
in the decade : 

Population of East Granby, 1860-1910^ 



Year. 


Popu- 
lation. 


Per cent 
change. 


Year. 


Popu- 
lation. . 


Per cent 
change. 


1860 


833 

853 
754 




1890 


661 

684 
797 


-12 


1870 


+ 2 


1900 


+ 3 


1880 


1910 


+17 









a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 638. 

There has been no uniform trend of change of population, but it 
has fluctuated in both directions. During the last decade there has 
been a considerable development of the culture of leaf tobacco for 
cigar wrappers and binders, and this probably accounts for the 
notable increase in population. Because of its inferior transportation 
facilities the town will probabl}^ remain a farming district, and will 
grow only moderately in the future. The present density of popula- 
tion is 45 inhabitants to the square mile. 

: The principal settlement is East Granby, in the eastern part of the 
town, where there are stores and a post office. There is a smaller 



EAST GRANBY. 125 

\ ilI;i<:;o at (!lraiil)y Station and i)ai1 of 'rai'ifl'ville extends into East 
(iiauby. Spoonville is a small settlement on Fa)'minp:ton River in 
the southeast oorner of the toAvn. There are about ;V2 miles of roads 
in the town. Avhieh ai-e for the most part excellent, thoup:li tli(> roads 
in the easternmost part are very sandy. The road fi-om Tariff\ill(^ to 
(rranbj^ Station and the road from Tariffville throujili P^ast Granby 
to West Suflield are of excellent macadam. The Central New Eng- 
land Railway runs past the south boundary of East Granby and has 
a station at Tai-ifFville. A branch runs north from Taiiffville to 
Springfield and has a station at East (xranby. The Xorthami)ton 
division (Canal Road) of the New York. New Haven t^ Hartford 
Railroad follows the west boundary and has ;i station at Granby 
Station and a flag station at Floydville, a mile south. 

SURFACE I-KATIRES AND OF,()L(X;iC STRUCTURE. 

Ea>t Granbv comprises a nearly level sand plain, IGO to 200 feet 
above sea level, above which rise a large till-covered hill and sev- 
eral smaller ones. The stream valle3's are cut into this plain. The 
lowest point in the town is where Farmington River passes the 
southeast corner, about 100 feet above sea level, and the highest point 
is the ci'est of Peak Mountain, 665 feet above sea level. The total 
relief is thus about 565 feet. 

The sand plain is separated into two parts by the large till-cov- 
ered trap ridge. It was formed by the deposition of vast amounts of 
debris washed out from the glacier as it receded from this region 
and so constitutes an outwash plain. The boundary of the stratified 
drift lies in general 200 to 240 feet above sea level. Above this 
height tlie mantle I'ock is till, the direct product of glaciation. 

The stratified drift forms a very loose, sandy soil, and its upper 
poi'tion becomes very dry in times of drought, although there may be 
an abundance of water at some depth. The ecologic conditions are pe- 
culiar, and the soil has a characteristic flora, in which scrub oak, 
pines, sweet fern, and a yellowish grass, locally known as " poverty 
grass," are prominent. This soil, however, is well adapted to the 
needs of tobacco. Its looseness makes the maintenance of good roads 
extremely difficult. Plate IX, B (p. 72), which is a view of the sand 
plain half a mile northwest of Tariffville, shows the very sandy road 
and the characteristic flora. In the middle distance is the corner of a 
" tent '' used for raising shade-grown tobacco. 

The ridge that separates the two sand plains owes its topographic 
prominence to the sheets of trap rock that underlie it. Most of East 
Granby is underlain by red sandstones and shales dej)osited during 
the Triassic period as sands and clays and subsequently indurated. 
The process of deposition was interrupted on three occasions by the 



126 GROUND WATER IE" ISTORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

quiet volcanic extrusion of basic lava which spread out in broad 
sheets and eventuall}^ solidified as trap rock. South of Tariff \'ille 
there are three trap sheets, of which the middle is the thickest (400 
to 500 feet) and is therefore known as the " Main" sheet. Below it 
and separated from it by 300 to 1,000 feet of sandstone and shale is 
the " Anterior " trap sheet, which has a maximum thickness of 250 ; 
feet, and is so named because it outcrops on the front or face side of 
the cliff formed by the " Main " sheet. Above the " Main " sheet and 
separated from it by 1,000 to 1,200 feet of sandstone and shale is the 
" Posterior '' trap sheet, 100 to 150 feet thick. The " Anterior " sheet 
thins out north of Tariffville and outcrops only in a few places. 

At some time subsequent to their consolidation the sedimentary 
rocks and the associated traj) roelis were broken into great blocks and 
tilted 15° or 20° E. Davis ^ has recognized and mapped one prin- 
cipal fault that bears about northeast and several minor faults that 
bear north or a little west of north. The ridge of Peak Mountain 




Vertical scale twice the horizontal 
EXPLANATION 



Sandstone Trap 

FiGUKE 18. — Greoio,sie section acroas East Graubv and Snflield (S!>ction !>-!)' on PI. V). 



Stratified drift 
and till 



stands up because of the thick, resistant " Main " tra|) sheet that 
forms a bold westAv a rd- facing cliff'. The ridge is broken by a gap 
about 200 feet deep where it is crossed by the Tariffville-Springfield 
Railroad, This gap is due to the major fault, which offsets a little 
the portions of the trap sheet to the northwest and southeast. The! 
gorge of Farmington River at Tariffville was formed by deep 
erosion of a fault zone along which there was similar offsetting. 
This fault zone bears a little west of north. The block on the east 
was raised and moved soutliAvard so that the offset of the north 
part of the ridge relative to the south part was to the east, Plate 
X, A, shows the offset to the east or left of the nearer or north part 
of the ridge as seen from a point a mile north of Tariffville. The 
minor faults produce offsets on a smaller scale but of similar char- 
acter. A section across East Granby and Suffieicl along the line 
D-D' on the map (PI. V) is shown in figure 18, and the relation of 
the ridg'es and the plain to the underlying formation is there 
illustrated. 



^ Davis, W. M., The Ti'iassic formation cf Connecticut : U. S. Geol. Survey Bigliteentli 
Ann. Kept, pt. 2, pi. 19, 1897. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SUKVKY 



WA'l'Kll-SUri'LV rAl'KIt t70 I'LATK X 




<imm 



^1^ 




A. OFFSET TRAP RIDGES NEAR TARIFFVILLE, CONN. 




B. FLOWING WELL DRILLED IN SANDSTONE, EAST GRANBY. CONN. 



EAST GRANBY. 127 

The part of East Granby west of Peak Mountain and its southerly 
prohtnoation is drained by a branch ol' Sahnon Hrook. which joins 
Faruiini^lon River near Tarift'ville. In the southeiii part cast of 
the ridge is a small area drained by short streams which empty 
directly into the Farmington. Most of the area east ol" tlie ridge, 
however, is drained by rather long northward-flowing streams that 
are tributary to Stony Brook (in Suffield), which empties into 
Connecticut TJiver. 

AVATER-BKARINO TORMATIOXS. 

Red saruhtone. — ISIost of P^ast Granby is underlain by rod sand- 
stone and shale of Triassic age. The beds have been tilted 15° or 20° 
E., and the rocks have been broken by the jarring, so that they are 
now traversed by many joints and large fractures. These openings 
form systems which tend to be either parallel or at right angles 
to the bedding. Water that has found its way into them from the 
overlying unconsolidated till or stratified drift may be recovered by 
means of drilled wells. The average depth of the 11 wells of this 
type that were visited in Suffield is 211 feet, and their aAerage yield 
is 20 gallons a minute. 

In much of the area a thick deposit of stratified drift mantles 
the sandstone. In places the stratified drift is as much as 100 feet 
thick, as shown by Mr. George Batytes's well (No. 5, PI. lY). which 
went through 100 feet of sand, silt, and gravel before reaching the 
bedrock. In such places abundant supplies would probably be 
obtained in the stratified drift without drilling into the bedrock. 

The drilled well of Mr. I. H. Griffin (Xo.^33. PL IV) is one of 
the few flowing wells in the State. It is probable that this well has 
cut one of a series of interconnecting fissures that are sealed in some- 
way. The well is on the east slope of a low ridge, and considerable 
]\ead is developed in the higher part of the ridge. The sealing 
lielow the well or to the east may be either due to the pinching out 
and narrow'ing of the fissures or to a blanket of impervious over- 
lying till. The till on the hilltop must be pervious, else water could 
not enter the fissures. K view of the mouth of this well, showing 
its normal flow of 1| gallons a minute, is given in Plate X, B. 

Trap rock. — The trap sheets, which underlie narrow zones running 
north and south through East Granby, carry water in the same way 
as the sandstones and shales but rather less abundantly. Their 
topographic form is disadvantageous, as the bold cliffs allow the 
water to drain awaj'^ rather readily. Mr. George E. Bidwell's well 
(No. 12, PI. IV). for example, is 150 feet deep, but the water stands 
75 feet below the mouth. In the other drilled wells in Suffield 
the average depth to water is only 22 feet, for there is little oppor- 
tunity for escape of water from them. 



128 GROUND WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

Till. — Till forms a mantle over the higher portion of East 
Gx'anby except for the areas where bedrock actuallj outcrops and 
the talus slopes below the trap cliffs. The principal till area includes 
Peak Mountain and its prolongation southward and a lower westward 
extension, but there are also two small till-covered ridges in the 
northeast corner of the town. The till is composed of all the rock 
debris plowed up and scraped along by the glacier. It was deposited 
as a blanket 20 to 30 feet thick in general and comprises a matrix of 
fine rock flour, clay, silt, and sand in which are embedded pebbles, 
cobbles, and boulders of great and small size. Because of the pack- 
ing of the smaller particles into the interstices between the larger 
the till has only a moderate amount of pore space and the pores, 
moreover, are small. The deposit, then, is one of low porosity and 
low permeability. Nevertheless it has considerable value as a water- 
bearing formation and is able to store and slowly transmit moderate 
amounts of water. Wells dug in till are likel}^ to obtain fairly 
reliable and fairly abundant supplies of water. Six such wells were 
visited in East Granby, and of these three were said to be nonfailing, 
but the dependability of the remaining three was not ascertained. 
The following table summarizes the measurements made on these 
wells: 

Summary of ivells dug in till in Eaat Granhy. 



Total 
depth. 



Depth 
to water. 



Depth 

of water 
in well. 



Maximum 
Minimum , 
Average.. 



Feet. 
27.9 
7.0 
18.4 



Feet. 
20.5 
3.0 
10.3 



Feet. 
18.6 
3.2 

8.1 



Stratifed drift. — The deposits of stratified drift, of which the 
origin and distribution in East Granb}'' have been discussed above, 
is a far more efficient water-bearing formation than the till. It is 
composed in the main of the materials of the till reworked by run- 
ning water. The grains have been sorted out according to size and 
deposited in different beds. The finer particles have been removed 
from the interstices of the coarser, so that there is not only a greater 
percentage of pore space, but the individual pores are larger and 
connect more freely. Large amounts of water may be recovered 
from the stratified drift by means of dug or driven wells. Mr. J. S. 
Dewey's well (No. 3, PL IV) was made the subject of a roug'h 
pumping test (see p. 41) which showed a yield of at least 5 gallons 
a minute. Measurements were made of 20 wells dug in stratified 
drift in East Granby in July and August, 1916. Of these 17 were 
said to be nonfailing and 2 were said to fail, but the reliability of the 



EAST GKANBY. 



129 



other well was not ascertained. Tlic data eoncernini; tlie depths of 
these wells is siimniarized in the followinjLj tahle : 

i^tiimiiari/ of iceUs (lug in stratified drift in East (Iranfuj. 



Maximum 
Minimum. 
A veragc . . 




DcDth P^'P"' 




QUALITY OF CKOUXI) WATER. 

The results of two analyses and three assays of water collected 
in East Granby are given in the follovv^ing table. The waters are 
ail soft except No. 5, which is very soft, and No. ,33, wliich is hard 
in comparison with other waters of this area. All the winters are low 
in mineral content except No. 33, which is moderately mineralized. 
xVU are classified as good for domestic use, but the large quantity of 
nitrate in No. -3 may be an evidence of contamination. No. 5 is 
classified as good for use in boilers, but the rest are classed as fair 
because they contain considerable amounts of scale- forming constitu- 
ents. The waters ar« calcium-carbonate in type except No. 8, in 
wliich chloride is the dominant acid radicle. 

ChciiiicaJ comiKJuiiion and classification, of ground waters in East Granby.''' 

[Parts per million. Analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers and C. H. Kidwell. Numbers of analyses and 
assays correspond to those used on PI. IV.] 



Silica (SiO.) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Mafcnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K)^. 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chloride radicle (Cl) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total dissolved solids at 180° C 

Total hardness as CaCOs 

Scale-forming constituents g 

Foaming constituents g 



Chemical character 

Probability of corrosion i. 
Quality for boiler use — 
Quality for domestic use. 



Analyses. 6 



dZ 



13 

1.4 
27 

•2.9 

45 
2,3 
11 
19 
150 
80 
98 
15 

Ca-C03 

^^). 
Fair. 

Good. 



.68 
14 
2.6 
7.0 
.0 
45 
12 
3.4 
8.2 
hSS 
f48 
64 
19 

Ca-COa 

(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



Assays. 



Trace. 



!7l20 
70 
95 
10 

Ca-Cl 

Fair. 
Good. 



/20 



7 
.0 
104 
8.0 
4.8 



5 130 

87 
110 
20 

Ca-COa 

Fair. 
Good. 



/33 



4 

12 
105 
35 

2.0 



ffl90 
137 
160 
10 

Ca-COs 

^•> 
Fair. 

Good. 



a For location and other descriptive information see pp. 130-131. 

b For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results .=ee pp. 52-60. 

<• Approximations; for methods used in assays and reliability of resuUs see pp. 52-60. 

d Collected Mar. 19. 1918. 

e Collected Nov. 18, 1916. 

/ Collected Dec. 6, 1916. 

g Computed. 

h Total solids by summation. 

i Based on computed quantity; (?) = corrosion uncertain. 



154444°— 20- 



-9 



130 GROUND WATER IN NOR WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 
EECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. 

Only one spring was visited in East Granby. It is plotted on the 
map as No. 27 and is situated at the foot of a terrace scarp. The 
yield is large, and the water is pumped to a house. 

Wells dug in till in East Granny. 



No. on 
Pl.IV. 



Owner. 



J. W. Bidwell... 



Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 



Slope . . , 

do.. 

Plain.., 
Ridge.. 
Slope . . . 
Terrace . 



Eleva- 
tion 


Total 


Depth 
to 


Depth 
of 

water. 


above 


depth. 


water 


level. 




in well. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


270 


14.8 


11.6 


3.2 


275 


25.8 


13.7 


12.1 


185 


9.8 


6.0 


3.8 


245 


27.9 


20.5 


7.4 


240 


7 


3 


4 


250 


25.4 


6.8 


18.6 



Rig 



Windlass rig and 
house pump. 

Chain pump 

do.... 

Windlass rig 

House pump 

Windlass rig. 



Remarks. 



Unfailing 
Do. 

Do. 



Wells dug in stratified drift in East Granhy. 



No. on 
Pl.IV. 


Owner. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 


Eleva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Depth 

of wa- 
ter in 
well. 


Rig. 


Remarks. 


1 




Terrace.. 
...do 


Feet. 
270 
195 

200 

150 

150 
170 
195 
195 
205 
195 
200 
190 
210 
205 

195 

180 
185 
160 
195 
185 


Feet. 
17.0 
24.0 

24.9 

5.4 

13.8 
12.4 
24.0 
14.6 
26.0 
7.0 
14.7 
18.0 
14.8 
32.8 

8.7 

17.3 
22.0 
11.1 
16.6 
17.4 


Feet. 
15.5 
21.5 

21.8 

3.1 

8.5 
8.9 
20.1 
11.5 
17.1 
4.7 
6.4 
14.0 
13.1 
29.4 

6.4 

12.6 
9.9 
7.7 
14.3 
14.6 


Feet. 
1.5 
2.5 

3.7 

2.3 

6.3 
3.5 
3.9 
3.1 
8.9 
2.3 
8.3 
4.0 
1.7 
3.4 

2.3 

4.7 
12.1 
3.4 
2.3 

2.8 


House pump 

Deep-well pump.. 

(a) 

Windlass rig.. 

Chain pump 

do 


Nonf ailing. 


2 





Nonfailing. In 


3 

8 
9 


J. S. Dewey 

Peter Bradley. . . 


Slope 

Plain 

Slope 

Plain 

Slope 

do . . 


rock 2 feet. 
Nonfailing. For 

analysis see 

p. 129. 
Nonfailing. For 

assay see p. 129. 
Fails. 


14 




Nonfailing. 


16 




Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

Windmill 




17 




Abandoned.6 


18 




Ridge.... 

Plain 

Swale 

Slope 

Ridge. . . . 
Plain 

do... 

Slope 

Plain.... 
do... 


Nonfailing. 
Do. 


19 




Chain pump 

do 


20 




Do. 


21 




Deep-well pump . . 
Two-bucket rig... 
do 


Do. 


22 




Do. 


28 




Nonfailing. Tem- 


29 
30 


Griffin-New- 
berger To- 
bacco Co. 


Windlass rig and 
house pump. 

No rig 


perature, 55° F. 
Nonfailing. 

Fails. 


31 




Windlass rig 

Sweep rig 


Nonfailing. 


32 


H. Russell 


Do. 


34 




.. do.. . 


Deep-well pump . . 
Two-bucket rig. . . 


Do. 


35 




do... 


Do. 











a Pumping test made on this well. (See p. 41.) 

b Formerly this well did not fail. The recent construction of a railroad cut 10 feet north and 10 feet 
lower has interfered with its supply. 



ENFIELD. 

Drillcil ircllfi in East Granh)/. 



131 



g 


Owner. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 


0) 

S 

es 
fl'3 

11 


43 
& 

•a 
1 


O 

P. 

o 
O 


01 

03 

t; 

0_; 

"oi 

0).-. 

ft 


a 

03 

5 


3 
1 

0) 


Kind of rock. 


Remarks. 


4 



6 
11 


J. S. Bewey 

tJeorge Jiatytes.. . 

Connecticut To- 
bacco Corp. 
William Laudroth. 


Slope... 
Terrace . 

Plain... 

Terrace . 
Slope... 


Feet. 
210 
190 

170 

160 

445 


Feet. 
402 
118 

360 

110 

85 

ISO 
152 

125 


37 
100 

60 


30 
30 


Indi- 
es. 
6 
6 

6 


lons. 
10 
3 

+ 30 

3 


Sandstone 

dc 

do 

do 

Trap 


(a) 

Foranalysis 
see p. 129. 

(») 
Water very 
hard. 

For assay see 

p. 129. c 
For assay see 

p. 129. 


12 
26 


Geo: E. Kid well... 
L. H. Seymour... 

I. H. Griinn 


...do 385 

...do.... 215 

...do ISO 


""io' 


75 
5 


6 

6 

6 


11 
19 


do 

Trap and sand- 
stone. 
Sandstone 













a Water enough for drilling at 40 feet; gain of only 2 gallons a minute from 2CX) to 400 foot depth. 

6 Drilled through 10 foot of sand, 4 or 5 feet of gravel, 45 feet of "blue clay," and 2 feet of "trap rock," 
and the rest iu sandstone. 

c Drilled through 10 feet of soil and 10 feet of trap rock and rest in sandstone. Windmill and gravity 
tank. 

d Well flows with a head of about 3 feet and with the outlet depressed IS inches; it flows IJ gallons 
a minute. Can pump 50 gallons a minute. 

ENEIELD. 

AREA, POPULATIOX, AND INDUSTRIES. 

Enfield is a nianiifactiiring and farming town in the northeast 
corner of Hartford County. It is bounded on the north by Massa- 
chusetts, on the east by Somers, in Tolland County, and on the west 
by Connecticut River. The town covers about 34 sc^Liare miles, of 
w^hich IS square miles, or about 40 per cent, is wooded. A strip IJ 
miles wide along the Connecticut is in the main cleared, but wood- 
lands are uniformly distributed throughout the i"est of the town. 
Thompsonville, on Connecticut River, 1^ miles south of the Massa- 
chusetts boundaiy, is the principal settlement. The village of Enfield 
is strung out for 1^ miles along Enfield Street, which follows the 
crest of the iddge south from Thompsonville. Hazardville and Sci- 
tico are small settlements in tlie eastern part of the town. There are 
post offices and stores at all the places. The town has about 75 miles 
of road, exclusive of the streets of Thompsonville and including 7| 
miles of the State trunk-line road from Hartford to Springfield. The 
Hartford division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Rail- 
road follows the west boundary and has stations at Thompsonville 
and Enfield Bridge. The Spring-field division of the same company 
runs north and south through the eastern part of the town and has 
stations at Scitico and Shaker Station. The East Side line of the 
Hartford & Springfield Street Railway Co. runs through Enfield 
and Thompsonville, and the Somers branch leaves the main line a 



132 GROUND WATER IN NOR WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 



little south of Thompsonville and runs through Hazardville and 
Scitico to Somerville and Somers. 

Enfield was named and granted by Massachusetts in 1683 and 
annexed to Connecticut in 1749. Since then there has been no change 
in its extent or organization. In 1910 the population was 9,719, an 
increase of 3,020 over the population of 1900. The density is 284 in- 
habitants to the square mile, but most of the population is concen- 
trated in Thompsonville, and most of the area is much more sparsely 



populated, 
since 1756; 



The following table shows the changes in population 



Population of Enfield, 1156 to 1910.°' 



1756. 
1774. 
17S2. 
1790. 
1800. 
ISIO. 
1820. 
1830. 



Popula- 
tion. 



1,050 
1,360 
1,562 
1,800 
1,761 
1,846 
2,065 
2,129 



Per cent 
change. 



+30 

+ 15 
+ 15 
- 2 
+ 5 
+ 12 
+ 3 



1840. 
1850. 
1860. 
1S70. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1910. 



Popula- 
tion. 



2,648 
4,460 
4,997 
6,322 
6,755 
7,199 
6,899 
9,719 



Per cent 



+24 

+ 68 
+ 12 
+27 

+ 7 
+ 7 
- 7 
+ 43 



a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 638. 

There has been in general an increase in each census period. The 
manufacture of carpets was begun at Thompsonville about 1830 and 
the manufacture of gunpowder at Hazardville a few years later. 
The growth in population has been dependent in large part upon 
the prosperity of these industries. The decrease of population from 
1890 to 1900 was probably due to the abandonment of the powder 
factory at Hazardville. Thompsonville may continue to grow stead- 
ilj", but no great increase is to be expected in the rest of the town. 

The principal industries of Enfield are the manufacture of carpets 
and undertakers' supplies and agriculture, which is confined chiefly 
to the raising of wrapper and binder tobacco. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE. 

Most of Enfield lies on a sand plain, 120 feet above sea level at 
the south boundary and 200 feet at the north. Along the east bound- 
ary till-covered slopes rise to a maximum elevation of 400 feet 
above sea level. The plain is bounded on the west in part by a ridge 
140 to 180 feet high, the west slope of which extends inland to the 
river and in others flattens to a terrace 60 to 80 feet above sea level. 
The river is about 25 feet above sea level at the southeast corner of 
the town. The total range in elevation is about 375 feet. 

The bedrock of Enfield comprises the red sandstones, shales, and 
conglomerate of the upper part of the Triassic. They were origi- 
nally deposited as sands, clays, and gravels, but became cemented 
and consolidated. Subsequently they were broken into great blocks 
and tilted 15° or 20° E. Their history since has been solely one 



ENFIELD. 133 

of erosion. Prior to the g] acini eijoch the Connecticut had a channel 
east of the Enfield Street ridge, as is indicated by the well of Mr. 
Eichard Smyth (No. 31, PL IV). This well is 418 feet deep, but 
reached bedrock only at a depth of 236 feet. As the mouth of the 
\vell is about 120 feet above sea level, the bedrock at this point is 
over 100 feet below sea level. The most probable explanation of 
these facts is that formerly the land stood about 150 feet higher 
tlian now, and that Connecticut River cut a channel which passed 
this point. During the later part of the glacial epoch, as the ice 
slieet was receding from this region, many streams of melt water 
issued from its front carrying much debris, which Avas deposited in 
the main in the broad central valle}?^ of Connecticut Eiver, forming 
bread outw^ash plains. These deposits filled and blocked the old 
channel and diverted the river into its present course. The youth 
of this new channel from Thompsonville to Windsor Locks is show^n 
b}- two facts — that the stream is not 3'et worn to grade and still has 
many small rapids and riffles, and that the banks are in large part 
low, fresh cliffs of sandstone. Moreover, there are no flood plains 
in this narrow portion of the valley as there are in tlie broader por- 
tions to the north and south. 

The outwash plain is in general well preserved, but Scantic River 
has cut in it a valley 80 to 100 feet deep and a quarter to three- 
quarters of a mile wide. The floor of this valley is flat and in part 
sw^ampy. 

The till-covered slopes along the east boundary ow^e their eleva- 
tion to the resistance of the underlying sandstone. The boundary be- 
tween the till of the slopes and the stratified drift of the plain is 
about 200 feet above sea level. 

The southeastern part of Enfield is drained by Scantic River and 
its tributaries. The Scantic enters the town from the east near 
Scitico and flows west to Hazardville, and then turns south into 
East Windsor. The southwestern part of Enfield is drained by 
short brooks that empty into Connecticut River. Grape Brook and 
Freshv\'ater Brook drain the northern half of the town. In com- 
parison with towns in which till is the dominant surface material, 
there are few brooks in Enfield, because the water that falls as rain 
soaks readily into the porous soil, becom.es part of the ground-water 
body, and reaches the main streams by percolation through the 
ground rather than by -flowing in surface streams. 

WATER-BEARIXG rOR3IATIOXS. 

Red sandstone. — Red sandstone and associated red shales and con- 
glomerates form the bedrock of Enfield. They crop out in a number 
of places along Connecticut River and on the ridge just east of the 
river, and there are a few outcrops on the till-covered slopes along 



134 GROUIS^D WATER IN NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 



tlie east boundary of the town. These rocks are cut by numerous 
jomts and fissures formed by the jarring and crushing incident to 
their tilting. There are probablj^ zones in the sandstone that are 
somewhat jjorous, but they do not constitute an important source of 
ground water. The joints and fractures form a maze of intercon- 
necting channels inta which water works its way from the saturated 
basal portions of the overlying mantle rock. This water may be 
recovered by means of drilled wells. A drill hole at any point will 
probably cut one or more fissures and procure a satisfactory supply 
of water. Data were obtained concerning 13 such wells in Enfield 
and are summarized in the following table. 

SiinDiiory of drUled tvells in Enfield. 



Maximum 
Minimum. 
Average... 



Total 
depth. 



Feet. 
■187 
• 38 
179 



Deptb to 

rock. 



Feet. 
236 
25 
55 



Depth to 

water. 



Feet. 



Yield per 
minute. 



Gallons. 
170 
22 

52 



The drilled well of Dr. Vail (Ko. 14, PL IV) has a depth of 487 
feet, of which 450 feet is in rock. The well yields 50 gallons a 
minute, but the water stands 90 feet below the surface. This is 
presumably because the well is situated near the crest of a ridge 
from which the water drains with considerable facility. 

Till. — The slopes in the eastern part of Enfield are covered with a 
mantle of till, which is, in general, 20 to 30 feet thick. It is a dense 
mixture of glacial debris and consists of a well-compacted matrix 
of fine rock flour, clay, silt, and sand, in which larger fragments 
are embedded. It is able to absorb and transmit moderate amounts 
of water that falls on it as rain arid yields fairly abundant and 
dependable supplies of water to wells dug in it. Three such wells 
were visited in Enfield and all are said never to fail. 

Sti'atified drift. — The bedrock of Enfield, except the hills in the 
eastern part, is covered by stratified drift. The evidence of the 
drilled wells in the town is that the thickness of the stratified drift 
ranges from 25 to 236 feet, the average being 55 feet. Inasmuch as 
one of these wells was sunk through an unusually great thickness of 
stratified drift, this average may be too great. Probably a bet- 
ter estimate would be 35 or 40 feet. In Thompsonville and on the 
Enfield Street ridge there is only a thin mantle. In excavations at 
various points there was only 3 or 4 feet of stratified drift, and 
below it there was either till or red sandstone. (See PL XI, B.) 
The stratified drift is of aqueous origin and comprises the well- 
washed, reworked constituents of the till, together with minor 
amounts of debris formed by the erosion of firm rocks. For the 



EI^FIELD. 



135 



moat part it consists of clean sand, such as is shown in Phite XI, 
A, which is a view of a sand pit in the northern part of Thomp- 
sonville bolonjifing to O. H. Pease. The sandy portions of the 
stratitied drift and the less abundant gravels were deposited by 
streams that issued from the front of the glacier during its reces- 
sion. The climate at the end of the glacial epoch was such that 
great volumes of ice were melted and gave rise to vigorous streams. 
In the lower lying portions of Connecticut, and especially in the 
valleys of Connecticut and Farmington rivers, these streams depos- 
ited extensive plains known as outwash plains. During part of the 
time there were lakes in front or south of the ice front, and in them 
very fine grained silt and clay were deposited. These clays are the 
raw material for the brick industry of the Connecticut Valley, and 
have been worked in Thompsonville. They yield no significant 
amount of water, but may be of importance in restricting and con- 
centrating the flow of ground water in other more porous horizons. 

The sands and gravels of the stratified drift are excellent bearers 
of ground water, as they are not only highly porous but also very 
permeable. The effect of the washing has been to leave in each bed 
only grains of a size, and this results in high porosity. The grains 
themselves are relatively coarse, so that the interstices between them 
are large and they transmit water readily. The absorption of rain 
water and its transmission arc the same in manner as in the till, 
but on a more vigorous scale, so that much more water may be recov- 
ered. Plate XI, B^ shows about 5 feet of stratified drift overly- 
ing about T feet of till in an excavation for a building in Thomp- 
sonville. The sand and gravel are quite dry, because the water has 
drained from their coarse pores, whereas the till is still moist, be- 
cause its line pores have retained much of their water. The light 
band at the top of the till is quite as moist as the dark part below. 
Its lighter color is due not to drjmess but to the fact that it was 
exposed to weathering and oxidation before it was co^/ered. over by 
the stratified drift. 

Measurements were made of 48 wells dug in stratified drift in 
Enfield in August, 1916. The reliability of all but 10 was ascer- 
tained; 34 were said never to fail and 4 were said to fail. The data 
concerning the depths of these wells are summarized in the follow- 
ing table : 

Summary of tvells dug in stratified drift in Enfield. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth to 

water. 


Depth ol' 

water in 

well. 


Maximum 


Fed. 
27.3 
7.3 
14.3 


Feet. 
24.5 
3.2 
9.0 


Feet. 
16.2 
1 4 


Minimum 




5.3 





136 GROUND WATER IF InTORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONlsT. 

Wherever the groiind surface has been cut low enough, as for 
example along streams, the water table is reached, and springs or 
seeps are found. Along the steep slope that bounds the flood plain of 
Scantic River there are numerous such springs, some of which have 
large yields. 

QUALITY or GROUND WATER. 

The subjoined table gives the results of two analyses and four 
assays of samples of ground waters collected in the town of Enfield. 
The waters are low in mineral content except Noa. 31 and 29, which 
are moderately m.ineralized. Nos. 30 and 52 are very soft waters,, 
Nos. 1 and 53 are soft waters, and Nos. 31 and 29 are hard waters 
for this area. All are classified as good so far as their chemical 
character may affect their suitability for domestic use. I^os. 31, 1, 
and 29 are classified as fair for boiler use because there is in each a 
considerable amount of scale-forming ingredients. The rest are so 
low in scale-forming and foaming ingredients that they are consid- 
ered good for boiler use, although the probability of corrosion is un- 
certain and will be determined by actual operating conditions. 

Chemical composition and classification of (ground xcaters in Enfield.°- 

[Parts per million. Collected November 17, 1916 ; analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers and 
C. H. Kidwell. Numbers of analyses and assays correspond to those used on PI. IV.] 



Analyses. 6 



Assays, c 



53 



Silica (Si02) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) d 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) .- 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chloride radicle (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total dissolved solids at 180° C 

Total hardness as CaCOs 

Scale -forming constituents d 

Foaining constituents d 



Chemical character. 

Probabilitj^ of corrosion; . 

Quality for boiler use 

Quahty for domestic use. 



17 

.04 
9.7 
2.6 
13 

.0 
40 
17 
3.9 
7.9 
94 
(2 35 
50 
35 

Na-COs 
(?) • 
Good. 
Good. 



27 

.09 
52 
8.0 
30 
4.8 
98 
128 

3.8 

Trace. 

303 

(2163 

190 

81 

Ca-SO< 
(?) 
Fair. 
Good. 



Trace. 



Trace. 



Trace. 

.0 

22 

29 

19 



105 
36 

78 



7 

.0 
35 
7.0 
3.6 



110 
(0 

Ca-SCi 
(?) 
Fair. 
Good. 



d300 
151 
180 
110 

Ca-Cl 

(?) 

Fair. 
Good. 



(2 71 

28 
55 
20 

Ca-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



(2120 
58 
85 
40 

Ca-COs 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



a For location and other descriptive information see pp. 137-139 

f> For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 

c Approximations; for methods used in assaj^s and reUability of results see pp. 52-60. 

(J Computed. 

« Less than 10 parts per million. 

/ Based on computed quantity; (?)=corrosion uncertain, N=noncorrosive. 



PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 



Water has been supplied to the residents of Thompsonville and 
to a few in Suffield, on the west bank of Connecticut River, by the 
Thompsonville Water Co. since 1885. Water is obtained from 



ENFIELD. 



137 



sprinos in the vallej'^ of Grape Brook in the northern part of the 
town and is run into two reservoirs of l,()tK),0(K) and 8,(KK),()0() gal- 
lons capacity, respectively. Steam-driven reciprocating pumps, with 
a capacity of 2,(X)0,0()0 o-allons a day, deliver the water to an elevated 
tank with a capacity of 500,000 gallons on the ridge at the north end 
of Enfield Street. The water is distributed by gravity under a 
pressure of about TO pounds to the square inch, through 34 miles 
of main pipe to 163 fire hydrants and 1,386 service taps. The 
average daily consumption by the 9,300 people served is about 
423,000 gallons.^ Mr. Walter P. Schwabe, the manager, says that 
the introduction of meters has reduced the consumption at least 25 
per cent. It is plamied to replace the present pumping equipment 
with an electrically dri\en centrifugal pump with a capacity of 
1,000 gallons a minute. The consumption now is almost as great 
as the yield of the springs. As Enfield is relatively low and level 
it will very probably be necessary to develop a ground-w^ater supply, 
which could readily be done by means of batteries of w^ells driven 
across one of the brook valleys in the northern part of the town. 

Since 1892 the Hazardville Water Co. has served residents of 
Hazardville and Scitico. Water is obtained from springs near Haz- 
ardville and from a well 8 inches in diameter drilled in the sand- 
stone. A cjdinder pump, 48 by 6 inches, at a depth of 150 feet in 
the well is driven by a steam engine and delivers 10,000 gallons an 
hour to tw^o elevated tanks which have a capacity of 30,000 and 
50,000 gallons. From them the water is distributed by gravity 
under a pressure of 25 to 40 pounds to the square inch through 4 
miles of main pipe to 18 fire hydrants and 222 service taps. There 
are 154 customers in Hazardville and 36 in Scitico, and the average 
daily consumption by the 1,100 people supplied is 35,600 gallons.^ 

KECOKDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. 

Wells dug in till in Enfield. 



No. on 
PI. IV. 


Topographic 
situation. 


Elevation 

above 
sea level. 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 

to 
water. 


Depth of 

water in 

well. 


Rig- 


Remarks. 


51 


Plam 

Hill 

do 


Feet. 

205 
260 
260 


Feet. 
15. 
18.2 
23.8 


Feet. 
11. 
8.2 
11.4 


Feet. 
4. 
10. 
12.3 




Nonfailing. 

Nonfailing. Abandoned. 


67 


No rig 


68 


Chain pump . . 


Nonfailing. 



1 Rept. Connecticut Public Utilities Commission, 1917. 



138 



GROUND WATER IIs^ NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

V/ells (lug in stratified drift m Enfield. 



No. 
on 
PI. 
IV. 


Owner. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 




ft 
o 


o 
ft 


-ci '-• 
+^ "^ • 

ft OS'S 

® ^ ^ 


Rig. 


Remarks. 


1 
2 


C. E. Pease 


Plain 

do 


Feet. 
95 

105 

125 
160 

190 
160 
160 
145 
165 
165 

165 
180 

150 
145 
120 

145 
145 

110 

145 
105 
145 

100 
145 
145 
155 
150 

140 

140 
145 
135 
130 
1.35 
130 
130 
125 
115 
125 
120 
125 
105 
165 
185 
175 
175 

160 

135 

95 

190 


Feet. 
18.4 

13.5 
10.2 
11.2 

12.8 
13.1 

12.4 
11.8 
18.5 
13.4 

13.0 

27.3 

21.0 
21.7 
23.3 

13.2 
17.6 

10.6 
15.1 

22.9 
14.6 

10.7 
12.1 
16.2 
13.4 
13.6 

8.2 

15.9 

11.3 

9.0 

9.1 

12.9 

11.4 

11.5 

10.1 

16.5 

7.3 

9.8 

11.9 

12.0 

24.3 

16.0 

14.8 

15.9 

26.4 

11.2 

8.1 

11.8 


Feet. 
15.8 

8.8 
6.3 
5.8 

7.7 
10.9 

8.9 

8.7 
11.1 

9.2 

8.4 
20.1 

9.1 

11.7 
7.1 

6.7 
9.6 

6.8 
6.9 
8.5 
7.2 

7.1 
7.0 
8.8 
9.7 
8.0 

4.9 

13.7 
8.2 
6.7 
7.0 

11.5 
7.1 
7.9 
4.0 

12.0 
4.5 
5.2 
6.4 
7.4 

19.0 
8.2 
9.1 

12.0 

24.5 
5.3 
4.7 
9.5 


Feet. 
2.6 

4.7 
3.9 
5.4 

5.1 
2.2 
3.5 
3.1 

7.4 
4.2 

4.6 
7.2 

11.9 
10.0 
16.2 

7.5 
8.0 

3.8 

8.2 

14.4 

7.4 

3.6 
5.1 
7.4 
3.7 
5.6 

3.3 

2.2 
3.1 
2.3 
2.1 

1.4 
4.3 
3.6 
6.1 
4.5 
2.8 
4.6 
5.6 
4.6 
5.3 
7.8 
5.7 
3.9 

1.9 
5.9 
3.4 
2.3 


Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

do 

Air-pressnre sys- 
tem. 

Chain pump 

Pitcher pump 

Chain pump....... 

House pimip 

Chain pump 

Chain pimip and 
house pump. 

One-bucket rig 

Wheel and axle 
rig. 

Chain pump 

V/indlassrig 


Nonfailing. For 
_ assay see p. 136. 


3 

4 




do 

Slope 

Plain 

Terrace..... 

Plain 

Slope 

Plam 

do 


Do. 
Do ' 


5 

6 
9 


H. W. Neelans.. 
Edw. C. Bacon.. 


Do. 
Fails. 
Nonfailing. 

Do 


10 




11 




Do 


12 




Do 


13 




do 


Fails 


15 




Hill 

do 


Nonfailing. 
Do 


16 




17 




Plain....... 

do 


Do 


18 


Wm. Oliver 


Nonfailing. Aban- 
doned. 


19 




Hill 

do 


Sweep rig 


20 


F. J. Pease 


No rig... 


Nonfailing. Aban- 
doned. 


21 




Plain 

Slope 

Plain 

Hill 

Terrace 

Slope 

. -do.... 


Chain pump 

do 


22 






23 




do 




24 




No rig... 


Nonfailing. Aban- 
doned. 
Nonfailmg. 
Do. 


25 


House pump 

Chain pump 

... -do. 


26 




27 




Do 


28 




Plain 

...do.... 


. do 




29 


R. E. Parson. 


House pump 

Chain pump 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

Windlass rig 

do 


Nonfailing. For 
assay see p. 136. 

Nonfailing. For 
anahsisseep.136. 


30 


M. W. Dunne. 


do 


32 




Terrace 

Plain 

do 


33 




Do. 


34 




Do. 


35 




do 




36 




do 

.do 


.,...do 


Do. 


38 


Chain pump 

do 


Do 


39 




do 


Do. 


40 




do 


do 




41 




...do 


..do 


Do. 


42 




do 


do 




43 




Terrace 

Plain 

do...... 


do 


Do. 


44 




..do 




45 




do 


Do. 


46 




.do.... 


.do 




49 




..do 


...do 




50 




do. 


House pump 

Chain pump 

Windlass 


Do. 


53 

54 


Richard Bogan.. 


Terrace 

Slope.. 

... .do 


Fails. For assay 

see p. 136. 
Fails. 


56 




Gravity system . . . 

Chain piunp 

Windlass rig 


N<infailinf- 


58 




do 


Do. 


66 




.....do.... 













SUFIflELD. 

Drilled ircil.s in Enfield. 



139 









a £3 


xi 


o 


e a 




b< 






No. on 
in. IV. 


Owner. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 






5-3 




.2 


— 'i 


Kind of 
rofk. 


Remarks. 








fA 


H 


« 


Q 


« 


? 












Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


In. 


Gals. 






7 


R. E. Davidson. 


Plain. . . 


165 


100 


36 


8 


' 6 


25 


Sandstone. 


Temperdturo 50' 
F. 


8 


F.W.Olmsted.. 


...do.... 


165 


147 


40 


14 


6 


22 


...do 


U 


Dr. Tnornton 
Vail. 


Ridge... 


185 


487 


37 


90 




50 


...do. 


PumpRd by air 
lift 


;« 


Richard Smith. 


Plain . . . 


125 


418 


236 


40 


6 


40 


...do 


For analysis see 


47 




...do 


185 
185 


38 

257 


34 
25 


28 
16 


6 

8 


"iio 


...do 

...do 


p. 130.O 


48 


HazardvilleWa- 


...do.... 




tor Co. 




















59 


II. E. Picrcp 


...do 


135 

100 


82 
70 


38 

44 


20 
20 


6 
6 


36 

48 


...do 

...do 




60 


SaiimolNeelon.. 


Slopo. . . 




01 


01m Ohmtod... 


...do.... 


90 


144 


28 


24 


6 


60 


...do 




62 


David Gokk'n... 


...do 


110 


112 


69 


27 


6 


45 


...do 




63 


Joseph Rest t-k... 


Plain . . . 


145 


276 


30 


20 


6 


42 


...do 




64 


H. K. Holbrook. 


Slope . . . 


190 


120 




18 


6 


45 


...do 




69 


Fred Farbcr 


...do.... 


95 


75 


51 


28 


6 


38 


...do 





'■■ Only 1 quart a minute at 380 feet, 18 gallons a minute at 400 feet, and full flow of 40 gallons a minute at 
418 feet. 

^l)riii{/s in Enfield. 



No. on 
PI. IV. 



Owner. 



E. P. Terry. 



Topographic 

situation. 



Swale . 
do. 



Foot of terrace. 
Foot of slope. . 
By brook 



Elevation 

above sea 

level. 



Feet. 
80 
155 



140 
80 
145 



Temper- ! Yield per 
ature. 1 minute. 



°F. I Gallons. 

50(?) 

50 Large . . 



100(?) 



Remarlis. 



Pumped to tanks. 

Pumped by water wheel to tank. 
Formerly suppUed village of 
Scitico. Water from stratified 
drift. For assay see p. 136. 



SUFFIELD. 



AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. 

Suffield is a large farming town near the middle of the north 
boundary of Hartford County, and is bounded on the north by 
INIassachusetts and on the east by Connecticut River. The town has 
an area of 43 square miles, of which 13 square miles, or 30 per cent, 
is wooded. The woodlands are in small or moderate-sized patches 
that are well distributed, though they are a little more abundant on 
the hills in the western part of the town. There are 60 miles of 
road in the town, including 5 miles of the Hartford- Springfield 
trunk line and 5 miles of road that is in part maintained by the 
State. The West Side trolley line of the Hartford & Springfield 
Street Railway Co. runs through Suffield. A branch of the Hartford 
division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad joins 
the main line at Windsor Locks. The Springfield branch of the 
Central New England Railway crosses the town from north to south 



140 GROUISTD WATER IN NOEV/ALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

and lias stations at West Snffield and Sheldon Street. The North- 
ampton division (Canal Eoad) of the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford Railroad runs across the west corner of Suffield, and its 
station at Congamoncl is used by the residents of that part of the 
town. 

The principal settlement is Suffield, a village spread out along 2 
miles of the main highway between Hartford and Springfield. West 
Suffield is a smaller village that lies 3 miles to the west. There are 
stores, hotels, and a post office at each of these places. 

Suffield was incorporated by Massachusetts in 1674 and was an- 
nexed to Connecticut in 1749. Since then there has been no change 
in its organization or territorial extent. In 1910 the population was 
3.841, an increase of 320, or 9 per cent, over the population of 1900, 
and equivalent to a density of population of 89 inhabitants to the 
square mile. The following table shows the changes in population 
since the annexation to Connecticut : 

Population of Suffield, llo6-1910.°- ' 



Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


1756 


1,438 
2,017 
2, 301 
2,467 
2,686 
2,680 
2,681 
2,690 




1840 

1850 


2,669 
2,962 
3,260 
3,277 
3,225 
3,169 
3,521 
3,841 


— 1 


1774 


40 
14 
7 
5 





11 


1782 


1860 

1870 


10 


1790 . . 


1 


ISOO 


1880 


— 2 


ISIO. . ... 


1890 




1820 


1900 

1910 


11 


1830. 


9 









a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 641. 

During most of the nineteenth century the population changed 
T'ery little, but the last two censuses show some increase, due, pre- 
sumably, to the culture of leaf tobacco for cigar wrappers and 
binders and to the establishment of manufactures of cigars, which 
are the principal industries of the town. 



SURFACE FEATURES AlTD GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE. 

Most of Suffield has a gently undulating surface, interrupted by 
two high trap ridges and by rather broad valleys. The plain char- 
acter is best developed in the northwest corner of the town, where it 
has an elevation of 240 to 280 feet above sea level, and along the south 
boundary, where it ranges from 120 to 160 feet in elevation; The 
eastern edge of the plain slopes gently eastward for about a mile 
but pitches sharply down to Connecticut River, making low cliffs in 
places. The northward extension of the trap ridges of Peak Moun- 
tain has its highest point a mile north of the East Granby town line, 
where it is 660 feet above sea level. As Connecticut River at the 



SUFFIELD. 141 

southeast corner of tlio toAvn is only about 20 feet above sea level, the 
area has a range in elevation of 640 feet. 

During the Triassic period central Connecticut was a great valley 
in which a thick series of sediments, sands, silt, ckiy, and gravel was 
deposited. These sediments were hardened and cemented to form 
the red sandstone, shale, and conglomerate that crop out at many 
places. The process of deposition was interrupted three times by 
the quiet pouring out over the valley floor of lava that on solidifying 
became the trap sills characteristic of the region. The relation of 
these sheets and the sandstones with which they are intercalated is 
shown in the following table, which is quoted from Davis :^ 

Section of the TrUtssin of Covnecticut. 

Feet. 

Upper sandstones 3, -500 

Posterior trap sheet 100-150 

Posterior sliales and slialy sandstones 1, 200 

Main trap sheet 400-500 

Anterior shales and shaly sandstones 300-1, 000 

Anterior trap sheet 0-250 

Lower sandstones 5,000-6,500 

In the present discussion the name " sandstone " is frequently used 
to mean all the Triassic sedimentary rocks, whether shale, conglom- 
erate, limestone, or true sandstone. In places there are trap sheets 
and dikes that were forced into the sediments after they had been 
deposited. 

Subsequent to their consolidation these rocks were broken into 
great fault blocks and tilted to the east. Erosion has cut away the 
softer sediments and left the trap sheets exposed so that they form 
prominent hills and ridges. The ridge of which Peak Mountain is 
a part is underlain by and owes its topographic prominence to the 
extrusive trap sheets. Manitick Mountain in the west part of Suffield 
is similarly dependent on one of the trap m.asses intruded into the 
sediments after their deposition. 

Just before the advance of the great ice sheet in the glacial epoch 
this territory was somewhat more rugged than it now is. There 
were the two trap ridges and six or seven ridges formed by resistant 
zones in the sandstone, all running north and south. The position of 
the sandstone ridges is roughly the same as the north-south strips of 
till shown on the geologic map (PL V). The ice sheet as it moved 
over these hills broke and ground off the projecting points and wore 
away the whole surface more or less. The resulting debris, which is 
called till, was plastered rather uniformly over the whole region, but 
especially in the depressions, thus reducing the ruggedness of the 

' Davis, W. M., Tht> Triassic formation of Connecticut : U. S. Geol. Survey Eighteentli 
Ann. Kept., pt. 2, pp. 28 aaid 29, 1898. 



[142 GROUND WATER IN NOSWALK AND OTHER AREAS, COTTIvr. 

topography. This process was still further continued by the deposi- 
tion of stratified drift in the valleys by ice-borne streams. These 
streams carried much sediment derived in part from the ice and in 
part from reworkuig- of the till. As these streams were slowed up 
a little beyond the front of the glacier they dropped their loads and 
so built up the stratified drift plains that form much of the floor of 
the valley of central Connecticut. The till-covered sandstone hills 
Were in part buried so that now only their tops show. In some a 
large part of the bulk is above the stratified drift, as, for example, 
the hill on which the village of Suffield is situated and which extends 
north to Buck Hill, but of others, such as those south of West Suf- 
field, only a little protrudes. It is quite possible that some till-cov- 
ered hills are completely buried and may eventually be exposed if 
erosion removes the stratified drift. West of Peak Mountain the 
elevation of the boundary between the stratified drift and the till 
ranges from 240 to 280 feet above sea level, and on the east from 
100 to 220 feet, being lowest near Connecticut Elver. The greater 
height west of Peak Mountain is presumably due to the fact that this 
ridge clammed the streams from the glacier and so raised the level 
to which they worked. Along Connecticut River, between Thomp- 
sonville and King Island, are rather large areas of till, which were 
probably formerly covered by stratified drift, but have been exposed 
by erosion. This portion of the Connecticut flows in a relatively new 
channel, and erosion along and near it has been great. The relation 
of the topography to the different rocks is shown in the section (fig. 
18, p. 126), the position of which is indicated by the line D-D' on the 
maps (Pis. IV and V). 

Some of the part of Suffield west of Peak Mountain ridge drains 
to Salmon Brook in Granby and so is tributary to Farmington Eiver, 
and some of it drains to Congamond Pond and is tributary to West- 
field River. Most of the town, however, is drained by Stony Brook, 
which joins Connecticut River near the southeast corner of the town. 
About 6 square miles is drained by short brooks that empty directly 
into the Connecticut. 

WATER-BEAEING FORMATIONS. 

Traf Tock. — The trap rocks of Suffield do not constitute an impor- 
tant source of ground water. They do contain some water in joints 
and fissures, but the hardness of the rock makes its recovery difficult 
and expensive. Moreover, the resistance of the trap to erosion leaves 
it in unfavorable topographic forms, so that much of the water 
drains away and many of the fissures are dry. 

Sandstone. — Considerable amounts of water are recovered by means 
of wells drilled in the red sandstone in Suffield. The unconsolidated 
soil above it absorbs a good deal of rain and snow water and trans- 
mits it in part to the joints and fissures made in the bedrock by the 



SUFFIELD. 



143 



crushing and jostling incident to tilting and faulting. The fissures 
tend to fonii s.ysteins of parallel fissures, which are in gener-al roughly 
parallel to the bedding planes or at right angles to them. The rocks, 
then, are cut by an intricate network of interconnecting fissures from 
which water ma^^ be recovered by drilled Avells. Some of the coarser 
sandstone beds may contain water in the interstices between the 
grains, but this is not an important source of supply. It is highly 
probable that a liole drilled at any point will cut one or more water- 
bearing fissures within a reasonable distance and so obtain a satisfac- 
tory supply. Twenty-six such wells were visited in Suffield in 
August, 1916. The data collected concerning tiiein are summarized 
in the following table : 

ISiuiniiari/ of drilled icells in Suffield. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth to 
rock. 


Depth to 

water 

in well. 


Yield 

per 

minute. 


Maximum 


Feet. 
288 
63 
161 


Feet. 
100 

1 
44 


Feet. 
90 

25 


Gallons. 
135 




6 


Average .- 


39 











I'HL — About 13 square miles or 30 per cent of the total area of 
Suffield is mantled with till. There are a few large patches and a 
number of small ones. Their distribution has been discussed above 
and is also shown on the geologic map (PI. V). The till was depos- 
ited by the plastering action of the glacier and consists of all the 
debris of the ice, the smaller particles forming a matrix in which 
the larger are embedded. As the whole mass is tightly packed and 
the smaller particles are fitted into the chinks between the larger, the 
total porosity and the size of the individual pores are small. A fair 
proportion of the rain that falls on the till is absorbed and slowly 
transmitted. Wells dug in till are in general satisfactory, espe- 
cially if they are so deep as to penetrate the saturated zone just over 
the bedrock, or if they happen to cut one of the masses of partly 
washed and sorted material that exist in some places in the till. 
Measurements were made of 35 wells dug in till in Suffield. The 
dependability of 27 of these wells was ascertained; 19 were said to 
never fail and S were said to fail. The data collected concerning the 
depths of these 35 wells are summarized in the following table : 

Summary of wells dug in till in Suffield. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth to 
water. 


Depth of 
of water 
in well. 


Maximum. . . 


Feci. 
40.8 
7.2 
22.3 


Feet. 
3,1.9 
4.4 
12.9 


Feet. 
15.9 


Minimum 


2.6 




9.4 







144 GROUITD WATER IN NOEWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

Strcdified drift. — The mantle rock of tlie lower parts of Suffield 
is stratified drift, which is composed of the reworked material of 
the till plus some debris derived from the erosion of the bedrock. 
Streams issuing from the glacier during its recession had high 
velocities and bore much debris, but they were soon slowed up and 
forced to deposit much of their load. Thus beds and lenses of sand 
and gravel were deposited near the glacier, whereas the finer and 
lighter debris was carried farther away and ultimately deposited as 
clay and silt. By this process the debris was sorted into beds in 
each of which the grains are of uniform size, and the finer grains 
were eliminated from the interstices between the larger. The strati- 
fied drift is therefore not only high in porosity but has relatively 
large and open pores. For these two reasons it is an excellent 
water-bearing formation except where it has an unfavorable topo- 
graphic form, as on terraces from which water may drain readily. 
Measurements were made of 44 wells dug in stratified drift. Of 
these wells 23 were said to never fail and 17 were said to fail; the 
reliability of the remaining 4 was not ascertained. The information 
collected concerning the depths of the 44 wells is summarized in the 
follovvdng table : 

Smnmary of wells dug in stratified drift in Sv/fjield. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth to 

water. 


Depth of 

water 
in well. 


Maxirnum 


Feet. 
34 
8.3 
17.8 


Feet. 
27 
5.2 
11.9 


Feet. 
16.6 




1.7 


Average .• . . . 


5.9 









QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

The accompanying table gives the results of two analyses and 
four assays of samples of ground water collected in the town of 
Suffield. These waters are moderately mineralized except No. 35, 
which is low in mineral content, and No. 99, which is high. No. 35 
is a very soft water ; No. 32 is soft ; Nos. 36, 93, and 97 are hard for 
this section of the country; and No. 99 is very hard. Nos. 36 and 99 
are considered to be poor for use in boilers because they contain ex- 
cessive amounts of scale- forming ingredients. Nos. 93 and 97 con- 
tain rather less scale- forming ingredients and would probably be 
fair for boiler use. Nos. 32 and 35 are good for boiler use. So 
far as their mineral character is concerned, all the waters are ac- 
ceptable for domestic use except No. 99, which is very hard. Nos. 



SUFFIELD. 



145 



03, 07, and 00 are calcium-carbonate in type; Nos. 32 and 35 are 
sodinni-oarbonate; and No. 3G is a calcium-sulphate watc^r. 



Clicnihol con; position and classifiration of ground loaicrs in liufflcld.'^ 

(Parts per million. Collected Dec. 6, 191fi: analyzed by .\lfred A. ChainV.crs and C. H. Kidwell. Numbers 
of analyses and assays correspond to those used on PI. IV.] 



Silica(SiO;) 

Iron ( Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) d. 

Car lionate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonal e radicle (IICO3) 

Sulphate radicle (804) -. 

Chloride ladicle (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NOs) 

Total dissolved solids at ISO" C 

Total hardness as CaCOs 

Scale-forming constituents d 

Foaming constituents d 



Chemical character 

Prolmbility of corrasion*^. 
Quality for boiler use. . . . 
Quality for domestic use . 



Analyses.'' 



21 

.14 
15 
6.6 
42 

.0 
90 
17 
45 

.05 

191 

d65 

76 

110 

Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



36 



32 

.19 
C,5 
17 
26 

9.1 
102 
176 
5.0 
.10 
391 
d232 
250 
70 

Ca-S04 
(?) 
Poor. 
Fair. 



Assays, c 



12 
.0 

27 
3.0 
5.2 



9.1 
35 
30 

Na-C03 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



93 



196 
23 
46 



d 300 
178 
200 
100 

Ca-COs 
(?) 
Fair. 
Good. 



97 



25 

196' 
23 

19 



0.07 



404 
45 



: 260 
162 
190 
70 



d530 
375 
400 
110 



Ca-C03 I Ca-COs 

(?) I (?) 

Fair. Poor. 

Good. I Bad. 



a For location and other descriptive information see pp. 146-148. 

b For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 

c Appro.ximations; for methods used in assays and ;-ehabillty of results see pp. 52-60. 

<i Computed. 

<■ Based on computed quantity; N=noncorrosive, (?) = corrosion uncertain. 

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 

The residents of Suffield viilag-e and its environs are served by 
the Northern Connecticut Light & Power Co., and a few on the 
Avest bank of Connecticut River opposite Thompsonville are served 
by the Thompsonville Water Co. See p. 136.) 

The Northern Connecticut Light & Power Co.. which began the 
distribution of water in 1805 under another name, has two drilled 
wells (Nos. 108 and 108A, PL IV) in the northeast part of the town 
from which water is drawn by electrically driven pumps with their 
working cylinders about 220 feet below the surface. Water is de- 
livered to a steel standpipe that has a capacity of 300,000 gallons 
on a hill a m.ile north of the village, from which it is distributed 
under a pressure of 45 to 50 pounds to the square inch through 13 
miles of main to 34 nre hydrants and 301 service taps. There are 
326 customers in Suffield and 12 in Agawam, Mass.,^ and the average 
daily consumption by the 2,560 people served is about 52,000 gallons. 
The maximum consumption comes during* the tobacco-planting 
season and is estimated by Mr. W. P. Schwabe, the superintendent, 
at about 140,000 gallons a day. 

^ Connecticut Public Utilities Commission Rept., 1917. 
ir,4444°— 20 10 



146 GROUND WATER IN NOEWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 
ItECGRDS OF WJILLS AND SPRINGS. 

Two springs were visited in Suffield (Nos. 49 and 79, PL IV). 
Spring No. 49 is piped by gravity about 200 feet to the house and is 
said never to fail. Spring No. 79 was improved by setting a barrel 
In it. The lower head was left in the barrel but was perforated by 
a number of ^-inch holes. 

Wetls dug in till in Suffield. 



"No. on 
PL IV. 



Owner. 



Topographic 
situation 



Eleva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 



Total 
depth 



Depth 
to 

water. 



Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 



Rig 



Remarks. 



87 



93 



95 
99 

103 
104 
105 
106 



W. H. Peckham. 



E. M. Austin . . 



Fred Brown. 



Slope. 
Ridge. 



Plain 

Ridge 

Slope 

Ridge 

Hill 

do 

do 

Slope 

Plain 

Slope 

Hill 

Plain 

Terrace . . . 

Plain 

do 



Slope.. 
Hill... 

do. 

do- 

do. 

Slope.. 



Hill.. 
Slope. 



do. 

Plain.. 



Slope. 
Hill.. 



Slope.. 
ICnoll. 

Slope.. 
Plain.. 
Slope.. 
Ridge. 



Feet. 
285 
270 

245 
245 
225 
220 
225 
215 
165 
195 
190 
160 
185 
165 
185 
185 
215 

165 
170 
165 
ISO 
180 
195 

180 
140 

130 
130 

110 
160 



175 
125 



110 
90 



Feet. 
12.6 
26.5 

17.4 

20 

18.2 

21.8 

26.0 

21.4 

23.6 

12.4 

22.2 

27.5 

21.0 

9.2 
21.4 
22.8 

9.6 

21.0 
26.7 
16.5 
24.1 
22.3 
26.8 

48.8 
27.3 

15.5 
29.6 

18.7 
39.7 



24.5 
20.4 

36.2 

7.2 

25.6 

16.4 



Feet. 

8.2 

23.9 

11.1 
16 
9.2 
10.4 
10.6 
14.4 
10.6 
9.0 
11.6 
14.7 
8.4 
6.0 
7.5 
16.3 
4.4 

14.7 
13.4 
13.2 
13.3 
10.1 
13.9 

30.9 
15.1 



16.6 



15.0 

18.8 



14.1 

6.8 

29.1 
4.5 
9.9 
9.4 



Feet. 
4.4 
2.6 

6.3 

4 

9.0 
11.4 
15.4 

7.0 
13.0 

3.4 
10.6 
12.8 
12.6 

3.2 
13.9 

6.5 

5.2 

6.3 
13.3 

3.3 
10.8 
12.3 
12.9 

15.9 
12.2 

6.7 
13.0 

3.7 
20.9 



10.4 
13.6 

7.1 
2.7 
15.7 
7.0 



Chain pump 

...-do 

....do 

Deep- well pump 

Chain pump 

do 

....do 

....do 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

....do 

Windlass rig . . . . 

Chain pump 

....do 

....do 

....do 

Windlass rig and 

house pump. 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

Wiudlassrig 

....do 

....do 

Windlass and 

pulley rig. 

Windlass rig 

Wmdlass and 

pulley rig. 

House pump 

Two-bucket rig.. 

Windlass rig. .. 
....do 



do 

Chain pump . . . 



Two-bucket rig. 
Chain pump . . . 

do 

do 



Nonfailing. 
Fails. Rock, 16 

feet. 
Nonfailing. 
Fails. 



Nonfailing. 

Fails. 
Nonfailing. 

Fails. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Do. 



Do. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing. 
Do. 

Do. 

Nonfailing. 

Rock bottom. 
Nonfailing. 
Nonfailing. 

Rock bottom. 

For assay see 

p. 145. 

Nonfailing. For 
assay see p. 145. 

Nonfailing. 
Fails. 
Do. 



SUFFIELD. 

Wcll>i (liKj iti ."itidlificd drift in Suffleld. 



147 



No. on 
Fl. IV. 



Owiicr. 



TopoKiaphii' 
situation. 



Klova- 






Depth 


tion 


Total 
depth. 


Depth 


of 


above 

sou 


to 
water. 


water 
in 


level. 






well. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet.. 


Feet. 


245 


11.2 


7.4 


3.8 


250 


20.5 


14.9 


5.6 


250 


8.3 


5.7 


2.6 


250 


10.2 


8.0 


2.2 


285 


20.6 


16.6 


4.0 


245 


16.5 


9.5 


7.0 


210 


9.8 


7.2 


2.6 


220 


19.0 


17.1 


1.9 


215 


12.3 


5.2 


7.1 


220 


12.9 


9.1 


3.8 


195 


19.6 


15.4 


4.2 


150 


13.5 


6.7 


6.8 


170 


34.0 


27.0 


7.0 


130 


16.7 


8.3 


8.4 


140 


13.7 


8.0 


5. 7 


245 


10.9 


/. / 


3.2 


185 


19.9 


14.5 


5.4 


175 


18.1 


13.5 


4.6 


190 


16.5 


11.2 


5.3 


175 


20.4 


16.8 


3.6 


175 


19.1 


14.4 


4.7 


185 


10.5 


6.5 


4.0 


185 


20.6 


15.5 


5.1 


155 


23.0 


13.4 


9.6 


185 


26.8 


10.2 


16.6 


180 


12.9 


7.1 


5.8 


175 


15.3 


7.9 


7.4 


145 


21 4 


19.7 


1.7 


1.35 


15.1 


11.0 


4.1 


125 


14.7 


8.4 


6.3 


125 


15.4 


10.8 


4.6 


175 


19.9 


5.9 


14.0 


110 


24.7 


13.6 


11.1 


115 


15.1 


6.8 


8.3 


125 


21.5 


12.6 


8.9 


1.35 


19.4 


10.7 


8.7 


145 


20.0 


16.0 


4.0 


110 


19.4 


11.9 


7.5 


125 


28.7 


25.7 


3.0 


130 


20.9 


13.2 


7. 7 


120 


25.6 


18.1 


7.5 


115 


23.7 


17.6 


6.1 


120 


15.9 


11.2 


4.7 


85 


10.4 


6.0 


4.4 



Rii; 



Remarks. 



H.W.Kehoe. 



Slope. 



do. 

Plain.. 
do. 

....do. 

do. 

do. 

....do. 

....do. 

....do. 

....do. 

....do. 



.do. 



C. B.Jobes.. 



T. H. Smith. 



A.A.Brown. 



do... 

do... 

Slope.... 

do.. 

Plain..., 

do.. 

Ridge.. 

do.. 

do.. 

Ridee.. 
Plain.. - 

do.. 

Slope. . . . 
Plain. . . 

Slope 

Plain... 

do.. 

do.. 

Slope.... 
Plain. . . . 

do.. 

Slope.... 

do.. 

Plain 

Terrace . 
Plain.... 
Slope.... 



100 
107 



do. 

Plain.. 
do. 



Air-pressure sys- 
tem. 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

do 

do 

do 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

Sweep rig . 

Chain pump 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump and 
house pump. 

Deep-well pump.. 

Chain pump 



Windlass rig 

do 

do 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

do 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

do 

Two-bucket rig. . 

Chain pump 

do 

do 

Windlass rig 

do 

do 

Chain pump 

do 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

do 

do 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

do 



Chain pump . 
do 



Nonfailing. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing. 
P'ails. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fails. Rock 3 feet. 
Fails. 

Nonfailing. 
Nonfailing. For 
analysis see p.l45. 
Nonfailing. 
Nonfailing. For 

assay see p. 145. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fails. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. 
Abandoned. 
Nonfailing. 
Fails. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Fails. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Nonfailing. 

Fails. 

Do. 

Do. 

Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 

Fails. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. Rock 
10 feet. Water 
from sandstone. 
For assay see 
p. 145. 
Nonfailing. 
Do. 



Drii'cn ircJJs in Nuffield. 



Neon 
PI. IV. 


Owner. 


Topographic 
situation. 


Elevation 

above 
sea level. 


Depth. 


Remarks. 


15 




Plain 

do 


Feet. 
215 
190 


Feet. 
30 
20 


Windmill rig. 


22 




8 feet to water level. 











148 GROUND WATER IN NOEWALK AND OTtlER AREAS, CONN. 

Drilled wells in Suffield, 



No. on 

ri.iv. 




Topo- 


Eleva- 
tion 


Total 


Depth 


Depth 


Diam- 
eter. 


Yield 
per 
min- 
ute. 




Owner. 


graphic 
situation. 


above 

sea 
level. 


depth. 


to 
rock. 


to 

water. 


Remarks. 








Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Inches. 


Galls. 




3 




Plain.... 
Ridge... 


250 
225 


245 
91 


""h" 


18 


6 
6 


""n 




13 


Chas. H. King 




17 




...do.... 


190 
245 
230 


105 

63 

183 


5 
33 
53 


20 
20 
30 


6 
6 
6 


25 
16 
iO 




19 




..do 




23 


A. L. Jackson 


...do.... 




25 


A.H. Wood 


Slope 

.. .do 


210 
190 


143 
212 


36 


16 

12 


6 
G 


43 
45 




26 


George Hastings 




27 


Samuel Barr . 


.do 


205 
195 


102 
204 


50 
100 


3 

18 


6 
6 


50 
30 




30 


L. A. King 


...do.... 




31 


Samuel Graham 


...do.... 


205 


178 


70± 


13 


6 


75 




34 


Tomlinson 


plain... 


160 


203 


60 


45 


6 


15 




36 


W. H. Peckham 


Hill 


160 


207* 


88 




6 


20 


Water from sand- 
stone. For anal- 
ysis see p. 145. 


42 


Wm. Daldn 


Slope . . . 


150 
270 


1144 
90 db 


1 
9± 


25 
40 


h' 


11 
.6 




48 


Holcomb Bros 




58 


N. L. Miller 


Plain... 
...do.... 


180 
185 


288 
123 


""io" 


19 

IS 


6 
6 


35 
23 




59 


P. D. Lilly 




60 


Wever 


.do 


180 


154 


30± 




8 


100 


Water flows from 








casing. 


61 


do 


...do.... 


180 
145 


1 
86 


20 
56 


8 


6 
6 


40 




64 


John Wolchak 


Slope — 




67 




Plain-... 
Slope.... 


145 
145 


250 
165 






6 
6 


""26"' 




84 


Geo. A. Peckham 


90 


13 




94 


Hugh Bickerstaft' 


.. .00 


160 


131 


32 


24 


6 


24 




101 




...do 


145 
110 

185 


115 
150 

236 


25 
35 
60 


10 
26 
90 


6 
6 
6 


23 
53 
67 




102 


do 


Terrace . 
Hill 




108 


Northern Connecti- 


(a) 




cut Light & Power 




















Co. 


















108A 1 do 


...do.... 


185 


236 


60 


90 


8 


135 





a Further description under heading of "Pub.ic water supplies." 

WINDSOB LOCKS. 

AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. 

Windsor Locks is a small manufacturing and agricultural town 
on the west bank of Connecticut River about 7 miles south of the 
Massachusetts boundary and 10 miles north of the city of Hartford. 
The area is about 8 square miles, of which about 5 square miles is 
wooded. The woodlands, which are in the main restricted to the 
western part of the town, are dominated by scrub oaks and yellow 
pines and have a typical underbrush of sweet fern and a yellowish 
grass, known locally as " poverty grass." There are about 30 miles 
of roads and streets in the town, including 3 miles of the State trunk- 
line highway between Hartford and Springfield. The roads in the 
west part of the town are very poor, as the soil is a loose sand. 

Windsor Locks, the only settlement, is on the Hartford division 
of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad and also on the 
West Side trolley line of the Hartford & Springfield Street Railway 
Co. There are hotels, a post office, and numerous stores and fac- 
tories. Windsor Locks owes its prosperity to the power developed 
from the Enfield Canal, which ends in the southern part of the vil- 



WINDSOR LOCKS. 



149 



lage. Construction of the (anal was begun in 1827, and the canal 
was opened to navigation in 1829.^ The canal is about o-} miles 
long and the lifts aggregate about 30 feet. It is estimated that in 
1880 between 1,800 and 1,000 horsepower was developed, but that 
there is available at least 15,000 horsepower.^ 

Windsor Locks was taken from Windsor in 1854 and incorporated 
as a sei)arate town. Previous to this it had been a prosperous manu- 
facturing place, the first factory having been built about 1830, In 
1910 the population was 3,715, an increase of 653 over the popu- 
lation in 1900. The population is mostly concentrated in the village, 
and the west part of the town is very sparsely settled. At each 
census since its incorporation the town has shown a substantial in- 
crease in population, and it is to be expected that this growth will 
continue. The following table shows the gains in population to- 
gether with the per cent of change for each census period : 

Population of Windsor Locks, 1810-1910fl 



Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 




Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


1870 


2, 154 
2,332 
2,758 




1900.... 
1910.-.. 


::;::::;:::::;::; 


3,062 

3,715 


+n 


1880 


+ 18 


-f21 


1890 









o Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 641. 



The principal industries of Windsor Locks are manufacturing of 
paper, cotton warp, machinery, underwear, and tinsel novelties, and 
agriculture, in v;hich tobacco is the chief crop. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Windsor Locks is for the most part a sand plain 
ranging in elevation from 120 to 160 feet above sea level. Near the 
west end of the north boundary a low till-covered hill rises above the 
sand plain to an elevation of 180 feet above sea level. A strip a mile 
wide along the east boundary slopes gradually to Connecticut River 
but is trenched by several rather deep valleys tributary to the Con- 
necticut. There are similar valleys- tributarj^ to Farmington River 
along the southwest boundary of the town. 

During preglacial time Connecticut River had a broad valley, 
which included the territory of Windsor Locks and in which w^ere a 
number of hills. During the invasion of the ice the valley was deep- 
ened somewhat and a mantle of till was laid over much of the bed- 

1 stiles, II. R., History and genealogies of ancient Windsor, p. 507, 1892. 

2 Porter, Dwight, Tenth Census report on water power of the United States, pt. 1, 
pp. 217-219, 1885. 



150 GROUND WATER IIs^ ISTORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

rock. As the ice was receding the numerous streams derived from 
the melting ice filled the valley with a thick mantle of stratified 
drift, which now forms the sand plain. Some of the hills were high 
enough to escape burial by the stratified drift, and the low hill in the 
northwestern part of the town is of this type. Eecords of drilled 
wells in East Windsor and in Windsor, tabulated by Ellis,^ show 
that the thickness of the stratified drift is 70 to 168 feet in some 
places. 

During postglacial time Connecticut Eiver and Farmington River 
have cut valleys about a mile wide and 80 to 120 feet deep in the 
stratified drift. Narrower and shallower valleys have been cut by 
their tributaries. 

Short tributaries of Connecticut and Farmington rivers drain 
Windsor Locks. In the northern and western parts of the town there 
are extensive areas with no streams of sulRcient size to be shown on 
the maps (Pis. IV and V). Evidently the water derived from the 
rain and snow that fall on these areas, except- the part that evaporates, 
is entirely absorbed and becomes part of the ground-water body. 
Along the stream valleys cut in the stratified drift are numerous large 
springs, such as those that feed the reservoir of the Windsor Locks 
Water Co. The high porosity and drj^ness of the surface soil is 
further shown by the xerophytic character of the flora. 

WATER-BEARINC4 FORMATIONS. 

Till. — The only till area in Windsor Locks is one of a few acres on 
a low hill on the Suffield boundary, but no wells were found there. 
The occurrence of water in the till is the same as in the till of the 
adjacent towns. (See p. 143.) 

StraUiied drift. — Stratified drift comprises all the debris washed 
out from the ice sheet as it melted back, together with eroded por- 
tions of the till and of the bedrock. There are beds and lenses of 
clay, silt, sand, and gravel, which lie on one another and interfinger 
in a very intricate w^ay. Within each bed or lens the grains are of 
very uniform size and most of them are well rounded. As a conse- 
quence the total pore space is great, and beds are high in permeabil- 
ity. Eain is readilj^ absorbed, and the water sinks downward until 
it reaches a zone of saturation. Wells dug or driven deep enough to 
penetrate the saturated zone are likely to obtain abundant and de- 
pendable supplies of water. Fourteen such wells were visited in 
Windsor Locks in July and August, 1916. Ten were said to be non- 



* Gregory, H. B., and Ellis, A. J., Ground water in the Hartford, Stamford, Salisbury, 
Willimantic, and Saybrook areas. Conn. : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 374, 
^p. 86, 90, 1916. 



WINDSOR LOCKS. 



151 



f:iilin<r and three were said to fail. The reliability of the other one 
was not ascertained. The data collected concerning the depths of 
these wells are summarized in the following table: 

SiiiHiiiari/ of wells in Windsor Locks. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth 
to water. 


Depth of 

water in 

wells. 


Maximum 


Feet. 
41 8 


Feet. 
39. .3 
3.8 
15.2 


Feet. 
8.8 
2 5 


Milium um 


6.6 
19.6 

« 


Average 


4.3 





QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

The accompanying table gives the results of one analysis and one 
assay of samples of ground water collected in Windsor Locks. No. 
6 is low in total mineral content ; No, 13 is moderately mineralized. 
Both are soft. So far as their mineral character is concerned, the 
waters are acceptable for domestic use, although the high nitrate in 
No. 6 may indicate pollution. No. 6 is considered good for boiler 
use, but on account of the large amount of scale-forming ingredients 
in No. 13 it is considered only fair for boiler use. No, 6 is calcium- 
carbonate in type, and No. 13 is a calcium-chloride water. 

Clionicul com position and classiftcafion of ground iraters in Windsor Locks." 

[Parts per million. Collected Dec. 6, 1916; analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers and C. H. Kidwell. 
Numbers of analysis and assay correspond to those used on PI. IV.] 



Analysis. 6 



Assay. 



Silica (SiOs) 

Iron(Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium ( Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K)d 

Carbonate radicle (CDs) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chloride radicle (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total dissolved solids at 180° C . . 

Total hardness as CaCOa 

Scale-forming onstituents <*.... 
Foaming constituents d 

Chemical character 

Probability of corrosion < 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic u,se 



18 

.31 
12 
5.0 
12 

.0 

39 

17 

5.8 

23 

104 

dSO 

62 

32 

Ca-COs 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



.0 



disc 
83 
110 
60 

Ca-Cl 

(?) 
Fair. 
Good. 



3 For location and other descriptive information see p. 152. 

b For methods used in analysis and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 

c Approximations; for methods used in assay and reliability of results, see pp. 52-60. 

d Computed. 

e Based on computed quantity ; (?) = corrosion uncertain. 



152 GEOUJSTD WATER IIST jSTORWALK AIS^D OTHER AREAS, CONN. 
PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. 

The village of "Windsor Locks has been supplied with water by the 
Windsor Locks Water Co. since 1892. Water from a spring-fed 
brook in the southeast part of the town is intercepted in two reser- 
voirs of 90,000 and 210,000 gallons capacity, from which it is pumped 
by electricity to a standpipe on a hill northwest of the village. The 
water is distributed by gravity under a pressure of TO pounds to the 
square inch through 10^ miles of main pipe to 68 fire hydrants and- 
592 service taps. Between 2,500 and 3,000 people are served and con- 
sume about 227,000 gallons a day on the average. The main pump 
has a capacity di 1,000 gallons a minute, and there are in addition a 
750-gallon pump driven by a heavy oil engine and a 350-gallon pump 
driven by a kerosene engine. The present supply is adequate to meet 
the demands on the system, and the company owns another brook from 
which twice as much water can be drawn as from the one utilized at 

present. 

Wells in Windsor Locks. 



No. on 
PI. IV, 



Owner. 



Topographic 
situation. 



Eleva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 



Total 
depth. 



Depth 

to 
water 



Depth 

of 
water 

in 
well. 



Rig. 



Remarks. 



Plain. . 
..--.do. 



Frank Debail. 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



Mrs. L.A.Webb. 



P. Pouruier. 



.....do.... 

Terrace. . . 

Plain 

.do.... 

.....do.... 

do.... 

Terrace . . . 



Slope 



.do. 



Feet. 
165 
165 

145 
145 
145 



140 
140 
95 
80 
65 
50 
30 



Feet. 
11.5 
20 

25.2 

37 

41.8 



19.9 
14.2 
16.1 
6.6 
9.5 
11.2 
22.9 



22.1 
16.2 



Feet. 
5.8 



22.4 

30 

39.3 



16.0 

5.4 
13.3 
3.8 
5.8 
8.4 
19.2 



18.8 
10.0 



Feet. 
5.7 



2.8 

7 

2.5 



2.8 
2.8 
3.7 
2.8 
3.7 



3.3 
6.2 



Pitcher pump. 
do 



Chain pump 

Deep- well pump 
Windlass rig 



Two-bucket rig 
Chain pump . 
House pump . 

No rig 

do 

Chain pump . 
House pump and 
windlass rig. 



House pump — 
Windlass rig 



Nonfailing, tiled. 
Nonf ailing. 
Driven well. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Water from 
stratilied drift. 
For analysis 
see p. 151. 
Nonfailing. 
Fails. 

Nonfailing. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Fails. Fluctuates 
with the river. 
Water from 
stratified drift. 
For assay see 
p. 151. 
Fails. 
Nonfailing. 



GLASTONBUEY. 



AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. 

Glastonbury is an extensive town near the southeast corner of 
Hartford County and lies on the east shore of Connecticut Eiver. 
It is about 5 miles southeast of the city of Hartford and 8 miles north 
of Middletown. The town has an area of 54 square miles, of which 
30| square miles or 55 per cent is wooded. There are very few 
woods in the vrestern part of the town ; the middle is largely wooded ; 
and the very hilly eastern part is filmost entirely covered with woods. 



GLASTONBURY. 



153 



The town works about 125 miles of dirt roads. There arc in addition 
4 miles of the Ilartford-New London State trunk highway and 6 
miles of road maintained in part by the State. These roads are 
surfaced with bituminous macadam. The principal settlements are 
Glastonbury and South Glastonbury, near tlie northwest and south- 
west corners, respectively. ITopevrell i5 a small settlement on Roar- 
ing Brook. 2 miles east of South Glastonbury. East Glastonbury is 
on the same stream 3 miles farther northeast, Addison and Buck- 
inoluim are 1| and 5 miles east of Glastonbury, respectively. Naubuc, 
another small village, is 1^ miles northwest of Glastonbury. Post 
oflices are maintained at Glastonbury, South Glastonbury, P'ast Glas- 
tonbury, and Addison, and the outlying districts are served by rural 
delivery. A ferry at South Glastonbury^ connects with the Valley 
division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Eailroad at 
Eocky Hill. A trolley line from Hartford runs to Glastonbury and 
South Glastonbury. During the open season there is steamboat con- 
nection to Plartford and New York. 

Glastonbury was taken from Wethersfield in 1690 and incorporated 
;is a separate town. In 1803 about -i square miles was taken to make 
l)art of Marlboro, and in 1813 1| square miles more was ceded. 
In 1910 the population of Glastonbury was 4,T96, which is equivalent 
to a density of 89 to the square mile. Much of the population is con- 
(^entrated in the several villages, so that most of Glastonbury is 
sparsely settled. The following table shows the changes in popula- 
tion since 1756: 

Population of Glastonbury, 1756-1910.'^ 



Year. 



175G. 
1774. 
17S2. 
1790. 
ISOO. 
1810. 
1S20. 
1830. 



Popula- 


Per cent 


tion. 


change. 


1,115 




2,071 


+ 86 


2,346 


+ 13 


2,732 


+ 16 


2, 718 


- 1 


2, 766 


+ 2 


3,114 


+ 13 


2,980 


- 4 



1840. 
1850. 
1860. 
1870. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1910. 



Popula- 


Per cent 


tion. 


change. 


3,077 


+ 3 


3,390 


+ 10 


3,363 


- 1 


3,550 


+ 6 


3,580 





3,457 


- 3 


4,260 


+ 23 


4,796 


+ 12 



o Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 638. 

There have been uo great nor persistent tendencies toward de- 
crease in population at anj^ time, and the gains have exceeded the 
losses. A continuation of the moderate, uniform growth is to be 
expected. The principal industries are agriculture, tobacco and or- 
chard fruits being the chief crops, and the manufacture of soap 
and other toilet preparations, paper, woolen and knit goods, and 
silverware. 

SURFACE FEATURES, 

Glastonbury is in part in the central lowlands of Connecticut and 
in part in the eastern highland. The lowland includes a strip a 



154 GEOUND WATER IIST NOEWALK AIS'D OTHEE AREAS, COFN. 

mile wide along the south part of the Connecticut River boundary 
and also the area northwest of a line from South Glastonbury past 
the foot of Eightmile Hill and Minnechaug Mountain. It is under- 
lain by relatively soft sedimentary rocks that have been eroded more 
completely than the more resistant schists and gneisses of the high- 
land. The highest point in the lowland is 420 feet above sea level, 
whereas the i3eaks of Birch Mountain are about 920 feet above sea 
level. The difference of general level between the lowland and high- 
land was produced by preglacial erosion, as were also their major 
topographic features, but the minor details are in large part due to 
glacial and postglacial processes. Along Connecticut River and m 
the valleys of Salmon and Roaring brooks there are areas under- 
lain by stratified drift deposited by streams that issued from the 
glacier during its recession. Parts of these areas retain their original 
flatness, but the higher parts have been extensively eroded. 

Most of Glastonbury is drained hj streams tributary to Con- 
necticut River, the largest of which are Salmon Brook, which has 
its mouth at Naubuc, and Roaring Brook, which empties at South 
Glastonbury. About 6 square miles in a strip along the Marl- 
boro and Hebron town lines is drained by headwaters of Blockledge 
River and Dickinson Creek, which flow through Marlboro and join 
Salmon River, which is tributary to the Connecticut at East Haddam. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

Five types of bedrock have been recognized in Glastonbury — Tri- 
assic red sandstone, Glastonbury granite gneiss, Hebron gneiss, 
Maromas granite gneiss, and Bolton schist.^ 

Schist and gneiss. — The Bolton schist is for the most part a typical 
silvery-gray mica schist composed essentially of quartz, feldspar, and 
mica (chiefly white), with minor amounts of accessory minerals, such 
as biotite (black mica), garnet, staurolite, and in places magnetite, 
graphite, pyroxene, and chlorite. Originally this formation was a 
series of clays, silts, and sands that were consolidated into shales 
and sandstones, v^^hich in tiy:'n have been subjected to great pressure 
and heating and have been metamorphosed. In places in Glastonbury 
the rock is very dark gray, as it contains a good deal of graphite de- 
rived from organic materials in the original sediments. The Bolton 
schist underlies a northward-striking belt a quarter of a mile wide 
that runs through the eastern part of the village of South Glaston- 
bury, and a belt half a mile wide nekr the east boundary, including 
Birch Mountain, from which it extends south-southwest. This for- 
mation is very resistant and everywhere makes ridges that stand up 
above the neighboring formations. 

^ Gregorj', H. E., and Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geolo^cal map of Connecticut : 
Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 



IS. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 470 PLATE XH 




MASSlVl!: GRANITE GNEISS, EAST GLASTONBURY, CONN. 



GLASTONBUllY. 155 

The Glastonbury granite gneiss underlies an area of about 26 
square miles, including Minnecbaug Mountain, Kongskut Mountain, 
Eightmile Hill, and Meshomasic Mountain. It is quarried for 
building stone at a number of places. According to Gregory,^ it 
may 

be cUvirted into two parts — ;i bvoud western portion, decidedly gnelssoid aud 
usually dark colored, with a large quantity of biotite and hornblende ; a 
narrower eastern portion, more granitic, and in places reaching the raassive- 
ness of a true granite. * * ^^^ As seen in the abundant expovsures west of 
the Portland Reservoir, it is a dark, well-foliated, almost schistose gneiss of 
fine grain, which on the cleavage surface shows alternating patches of black 
biotite and white feldspar. * * * The presence of biotite aud hornblende, 
arranged in parallelism with aggregates of feldspar, gives a distinct foliation 
and banding to the rock. * * * This more schistose variety forms the 
hills southeast of Glastonbury and occurs in the bed of Roaring Brook in 
South Glastonbury. * * * The more nia??sive variety of this gnaeiss is seen 
in tlie small quarries north of East Glastonbury. The rock here is a light- 
colored fine-grained biotite gneiss or granite, which soruetimesi is quarried in 
blocks 2 or 3 feet in thickuess, with no sign of a parting. * * * In regard 
to the origin of the Glastonbury gneiss there is strong indication that it is in 
large part igneous ; and this applies both to the more massive eastern portion 
and the more gneissic variety on the west. 

Plate XII rs a view in one of the small quarries in the massive 
phase of the Glastonbury granite gneiss and shows the massive 
character and the jointing of the rock. 

The Maromas granite gneiss underlies a strip a quarter of a mile 
wide w^st of the Bolton schist area of South Glastonbury and also a 
strip half a mile to a mile wide east of the eastern Bolton schist area 
and along the Marlboro and Hebron town lines. It is for the most 
part a typical granite gneiss, composed essentially of quartz,, feldspar, 
and mica with subordinate amounts of other minerals. Much of it 
has been crushed and mashed, which has given it a gneissic texture. 
Other phases are more basic and darker colored because of the pres- 
ence of hornblende. 

The Hebron gneiss underlies a very small area in Glastonbury 
along the boundary where it touches the towns of Marlboro and He- 
bron. According to Gregory,^ it " varies from a granitic gneiss to a 
highly fissile schist," and '' where typically developed is a fine- 
grained gneiss, with a relatively small amount of feldspar." 

As regards their water-bearing capacity these granite gneisses and 
the schist are essentially alike, but no supplies from them have been 
obtained in Glastonbury. The dynamic stresses that metamorphosed 
theni also made many fractures, which form systems of parallel, flat 
openings. In general there is a set roughly horizontal and one or 

1 Eice, W. N., and Gregory, H. E., Manual at the geology of Connecticut : Connecticut 
Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, pp. 116-119, 1906. 

2 Idem, p. 141. 



156 GEOUND WATER IF FORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, COISTIT. 

more about at right angles to it. Rain water which has soaked into 
the overlying unconsolidated soil in part finds its v^ay into the inter- 
connecting fissures. Elsewhere in the State wells drilled into similar 
rocks obtain dependable and reasonably abundant supplies of water 
from the fissures. Drilling into the schist or gneiss at an^^ point in 
Glastonbury would probably yield equally satisfactory results. Small 
amounts of water are contained in the minute lamellar openings be- 
tween the mica flakes of the schist and the schistose phases of the 
gneisses, but they are negligible. 

Red sandstone. — The lowland portion of Glastonbury is underlain 
by red sandstone with which are associated some red shale and con- 
glomerate. During the Triassic period a great valley, bounded on 
the east by a great fault, existed in central Connecticut. Into this 
valley were washed sands, clays, and gravels that were consolidated 
to form sandston&s, shales, and conglomerates. The beds were origi- 
nally flat-lying but continued faulting along the eastern border 
tilted them to the east. At the same time jarring and crushing 
opened many joints and made new fractures in the rocks. Water is 
carried in them in the same way as in the fissures in the gneiss and 
schist. Two drilled wells which presumably obtain their water in 
this way were visited in Glastonbury. There may be porous zones 
in the sandstone and conglomerate which carry considerable amounts 
of water, but none have been recognized. 

Till. — ^The bedrock of the higher parts of Glastonbury, exj^ept the 
areas of actual rock outcrop, is mantled with till, the product of 
direct glacial deposition. It forms a layer ranging in thickness from 
a few feet to 50 feet, and comprises all the debris plucked and ground 
beneath the ice sheet. In a matrix of fine rock flour, clay, silt, and 
sand larger fragments are embedded. Because of the intimate mix- 
ture of particles of irregular shapes and the packing of the smaller 
into the interstices between the larger by the great weight of the ice, 
the till forms a dense tough mass and has moderate porosity and 
permeability. Water which has fallen as rain is in part absorbed 
by the till and slowly transmitted by gravity. Below a certain depth, 
which differs from place to place and from time to time, the minute 
pores of the till are saturated with water, which may be recovered 
by means of dug wells. In general it is advisable to dig the well to 
bedrock, as the zone immediately above the bedrock is the most thor- 
oughly saturated and therefore yields the best supplies. In some 
places this is impossible, but wells which extend below the lowest 
level reached by the top of the saturated zone during droughts are 
reasonably certain to procure constant supplies of water sufficient 
for ordinary domestic and farm needs. In iVugust, 1916, measure- 
ments were made of 42 wells dug in till in Glastonbury. Of these 
wells 11 were said never to fail and 15 were said to fail, but the re- 



GLASTONBUKY. 



157 



liability of the other IC was not ascertained. The data concerning 
the depths of the 42 wells are summarized in the followinjji: table: 

,Si(»n)uir!/ u( irclls diKj in till in (il<isto)ihni-y. 





Total 
depth. 


Depth to 
water. 


Depth of 

water in 

well. 


Maximum 


Feet. 
42.4 
10.4 
21.0 


Feet. 

32.9 

5.3 

16.9 


Fat. 
7.5 


Minimum 


1.8 


Average 


4.1 









Stratified drift. — The mp^ntle rock of the lower parts of Glaston- 
bury is stratified drift. The boundary between it and the till is in 
general about 200 feet above sea level but is higher in the valleys to 
the east. East of East Glastonburj^ there is a knoll of stratified 
drift which has an elevation of 520 feet. Stratified drift is not the 
j)roduct of direct glacial deposition, as is the till, but was laid down 
by water derived in large part from the melting of the ice. Many 
etream.s issued from the receding glacier and bore much debris, 
which the}^ dropped near the ice front, forming broad glacial-out- 
wash plains in the broad valleys and narrower plains and terraces in 
the smaller valleys. The stratified drift consists for the niost part 
of the constituents of the till and debris carried from the glacier. 
These materials have been sorted according to size, thoroughly 
washed, and finally laid down in separate beds and lenses. Inasmuch 
as the finer particles have been removed from the interstices between 
the larger ones, and the grains themselves worn from subangular to 
well-rounded shapes, the stratified drift is both higher in total 
porosity and of greater perviousness than the till. It absorbs water 
more quickly and in larger amounts and transmits it more readily. 
Wells dug in stratified drift procure water in the same way as wells 
in till but on a more generous scale. The supplies are in general 
more reliable, unless the well in stratified drift is so situated that 
the ground water may drain from it readily. Measurements were 
made of 42 wells dug in stratified drift in Glastonbury. Of these 
wells 30 were said never to fail and 6 to fail; the reliability of the 
other 6 was not ascertained. The following table summarizes the 
data collected concerning the depths of these 42 wells: 



Huminarv of icelU diift in stratified drift in Glastonbury. 



Maximum 
Minimum 
Average.. 



Total 
depth. 



Feet. 
32.9 
5.6 
17.4 



Depth to 
water. 



Feet. 
23.7 
1.0 
10.5 



Depth of 

water in 

well. 



Feet. 
15.9 
1.2 
6.9 



158 GEOU]:TD WATER IF NORWALK AND OTHER AREAS, COIsTN. 

It is said by the residents that on the knoll of stratified drift east 
of East Glastonbury it would be necessary to dig wells to a depth of 
80 feet in order to reach the water level. This may be an excessive 
estimate, but it is entirely reasonable to suppose that the water lies 
at an unusually great depth at this point, as the topographic situa- 
tion is very disadvantageous for the retention of ground water. At 
present the people living on this knoll depend largely upon rain 
water collected from roofs and stored in cisterns, 

QUALITY OF GROUWD WATER. ' 

The following table gives the results of two analyses and four 
assays of samples of ground water collected in the town of Glaston- 
bury. The waters are all low in mineralization except Nos. 15 and 
2, which are moderately mineralized. No. 15 is a soft water, No. 2 
is comparatively hard, and the rest are very soft. All are suitable 
for domestic use, so far as this may be determ_ined by their mineral 
(.'ontent. AH are good for boiler use except No. 2, which is rated as 
fair because the scale-forming ingredients are a little high. All are 
sodium-carbonate waters except No. 2, which is calcium-carbonate 
in type. 

Chemical composition and classification of ground waters in Olastonbwry.^ 

[Parts per million. Collected Dec. 2, 1916; analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers and C. H. Kidwell. 
Numbers of analyses and assays correspond to those used on PI. VI.j 



Analyses. 6 



15 



Assays.- 



59 



Silica (SiOo).. 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) '. 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na-t- K) d 

Carbonate radicle (COj) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCOb) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chloride radicle (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NOs) 

Total dissolved solids at 180° C. . . 

Total hardness as CaCOs 

Scale-forming constituents (^ 

Poaming constituents d 

Chemical character 

Probability of corrosion/ 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic use 



.28 



19 
3.8 
28 

.0 
71 
33 
22 

1.1 

174 

<?63 

84 

76 

Na-COs 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



18 
.20 

8.7 
2.3 
11 

.0 
37 
13 
.5.8 
2.9 
78 
d31 
48 
30 

Na-COs 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



0.81 



Trace. 
.0 

64 
38 
17 



(2 160 
128 
150 
(e) 

Ca-COs 
(?) 
Fair. 
Good. 



Trace. 



0.18 



11 
.0 

22 
2.0 
5.1 



19 

.0 
43 
3.0 
20 



d55 
6.0 
30 
30 

Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



dm 
28 
55 
50 

Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



13 

.0 
31 
9.0 

5.6 



'i74 
16 



30 



Na-COs 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



a For location and other descriptive information see pp. 159-161. 
f> For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 
c Approximations; for methods used in assays and reliability of results see pp. 52-60. 
d Computed. 

e Less than 10 parts per million. 
/Based on computed quantity; (?) = corrosion uncertain, N=noncorrosive. 



GLASTONBURY. 



159 



PUBLIC WATEU SUPPLIES. 

The villages of Glastonbury and Naubuc are supplied with water by 
the waterworks of the fire district of East Ilaitford, which have been 
described by Ellis.^ The two reservoirs of this system, from which 
water is distributed b}^ gravity, are on brooks in the hills of the 
northern part of Glastonbury and have capacities of 1,700,000 and 
1,500,000 gallons, respectively. 

Since 1905 the residents of South Glastonbury have had water 
from the South Glastonbury Water Co. There are two reservoirs on 
Ashle}' Brook, the upper of which has a capacity of 4,000,000 gallons 
and the lower of 500,000 gallons. Water is distributed by gravity 
under a pressure of 60 to 100 pounds to the square inch through 1 
miles of main pipe to 95 service connections,- 

RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. 

The only spring visited in Glastonbury (No. 31, PI. VI) is in a 
swale and is improved with a large tile. Its water was found to 
have a temx)erature of 59° F. 

Wells (lug in till in Glastonbury. 



No. 

on 

PI. VI 



Owner. 



Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 



^ 






^ 


o 




5 


rt 


cs-S 


Xi 


C3 


6^-: 


8° 




o 


o^ 




"a 


si 
ft 


£-5 






OJ 




K 


t^ 


O 


Q 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


310 


13.8 


4.3 


9.5 


375 


9.0 


5.3 


3.7 


380 


18.3 


11.6 


6.7 


530 


11.0 


6.6 


4.4 


445 


12.0 


7.4 


4.6 


425 


23.0 


16.5 


6.5 


480 


13.3 


8.2 


5.1 


550 


14. 5 


8.1 


6.4 


460 


17.3 


11.3 


6.0 


465 


26.9 


23. 7 


3.2 


520 


19.5 


10.3 


2 


550 


19.8 


13.4 


6.4 


650 


6.1 


1.0 


5.1 


435 


13. 3 


8.6 


4.7 


385 


14.9 


10.0 


4.9 


455 


30.3 


27.0 


3.3 


410 


19.0 


13.3 


5.7 


425 


14.7 


5.4 


9.3 


445 


25.7 


10.1 


15.6 


630 


15.8 


9.4 


6.4 


675 


5.6 


1.9 


3.7 


580 


14.1 


5.7 


8.4 


210 


15.0 


13.8 


1.2 


260 


17.4 


10.0 


7.4 


350 


16.3 


11.6 


4.7 


375 


32.9 


20.5 


12.4 



Rig. 



Remarks. 



Herbert E. Mitchel 



M. K. Tryon . 



Jerome P. Weir, jr. 



Peter Zimmerman. 



Slope.-.. 

do.. 

do.. 

Plateau . 
Slope . . . 

do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

Plain . . . 
Slope . . . 

do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

Plain . . . 
Slope . . . 



John Kelly. 



-do. 
-do. 
-do. 
-do. 
-do. 
-do. 
-do. 



Plain . . 
Slope-. 
....do. 



Windlass rig 

No rig 

Two-bucket rig-. 

Chain pump 

Windlass rig 

do 

do 

Two-l)ucket rig . 

Windlass rig 

do....; 

Chain pump 

do 

Sweep rig 

Windlass rig 

No rig 

Windlass and 

counterbalance 

rig. 
Two-bucket rig. - 

No rig 

Windlass rig 

Sweep rig 

No rig 

Windlass rig 

do 



....do 

House pump- 

Windlass rig. 



Fails. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Fails. 
Do. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Failsjabandoned. 

NonlailLng. 
Do. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing. 



Do. 
Do. 

Do. 

Fails. 

Fails. Rock bot- 
tom. For assay 
see p. 158. 

Nonfailing. 
Do. 



1 Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, A. J., Ground water in the Hartford, Stamford, Salisbury, 
Willimantic, and Saybix>ok areas. Conn. : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 374, 
p. 71, 1916. 

= Connecticut Public Utilities Comm. Rept., 1917. ' 



160 GKOUND WATEE IN NOR WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 
Wells dug in till in Glaslonbunj^Continued. 



No. 

on 

1. VI. 



Owner 



Eugene Loveland. 



B. Zola . 



Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 



Slope. . 
...fdo. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 



do.. 

do.. 

Hill 

Terrace . 
Plain... 
Plateau . 
Hilltop . 

do.. 

Slope . . . 
do.. 

















<u 


o 






"r^ 


OS'S 


,4 
ft 


c 




^ :o 


o3 


'p^ 


p, 




O 






" 


^^ 


a 


p 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


410 


19.0 


8.5 


1U.5 


470 


19.1 


13.9 


5.2 


475 


9.7 


7.2 


2.6 


400 


11.5 


6.7 


4.8 


420 


24.3 


15.3 


9.0 


410 


19.0 


11.7 


7.3 


490 


19.8 


8.4 


11.4 


470 


18.9 


14.3 


4.6 


725 


17.7 


13.1 


4.6 


680 


18.5 


15. 5 


3.0 


710 


9.2 


7.8 


1.4 


730 


18.3 


7.5 


10.8 


8S5 


15.4 


10.9 


4.5 


885 


11.0 


6,2 


4.8 


910 


21.9 


1.5.9 


6.0 


890 


26.4 


13.8 


12.6 



Ris 



Two-bucket rig. 

do 

House pump... 
Windlas.s rig . . . 

do 

Two-bucket rig. 
Windlass rig . T . 
Chain pump... 
Windlass rig . . . 

do 

No rig 

Windlass rig . . . 

do.. 

Two-bucket rig- 
Windlass rig . 1 . 
do...;.... 



Remarks. 






Pails. 
NonfailLng. 



Fails. 
Nonlailing. 



Do. 
Fails. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 



Yy^ells dug in stratified drift in Glastonbury. 



No. on 
PI. VI. 



Owner. 



Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 



> 
o 


ft 

0) 

XS 

o 


a; 

p 
si 
& 


(V 

a 

t: . 

O |5 
ft 

a> 
P 


Feet. 


Feel. 


Feet. 


Fed. 


25 


20.5 


16.6 


3.9 


35 


10.4 


7.3 


3.1 


25 


12.0 


7.7 


4.3 


30 


13.3 


10.4 


2.9 


35 


10.5 


5.8 


4.7 


SO 


16.3 


12.8 


3.6 


30 


10.8 


8.1 


2.7 


35 


12.0 


6.5 


5.5 


60 


12.6 


10.8 


1.8 


50 


18.3 


14.5 


3.8 


75 


19.5 


17.3 


2.2 


45 


13.7 


10.8 


2.9 


55 


14.5 


8.0 


6.5 


45 


11.5 


8.4 


3.1 


85 


40.3 


34.7 


5.6 


60 


23.9 


18.6 


5.3 


15 


23.4 


19.7 


3.7 


30 


42.4 


39.9 


2.6 


20 


34.6 


31.7 


2.9 


25 


40.4 


38.1 


2.3 


175 


18.9 


12.2 


6.7 


195 


34.7 


29.3 


5.4 


170 


32.8 


30.3 


2.5 


170 


16.0 


10.8 


5.2 


ISO 


16.5 


12.2 


4.3 


250 


16.2 


11.3 


4.9 


305 


40.0 


3S. 2 


1.8 


305 


27.7 


20.5 


7.2 


315 


18.2 


14.8 


3.4 


340 


19.3 


16.2 


3.1 


415 


33.8 


28.4 


5.4 


350 


14.9 


11.1 


3.8 



Rig. 



Remarks. 



Mr. Neusoheleir. 



Plain.. 
do. 



do.. 

do.. 

do.. 

Slope... 
Plain . . . 

do.. 

Terrace. 



Plain . . 

do. 

do. 



1 Slope. 

I Plain. 

WiUiam Staslinger Slope. 



Terrace. 

Plain... 

do.. 

do.. 

Louis C. Tryon. . . Terrace. 
G. A. Blinn Slope... 



Mrs. L. Bacon 

David R. Taylor. 



George Kingston. 



ao.. 

Plain... 

do.. 

do.. 

Terrace. 

do.; 

Slope... 



Plain... 
Terrace. 

do.. 

Plain... 



Chain pnmp 

....do 

do 

Two-bucket rig . 

Chain pump 

....do 

do 

Windlass rig 

No rig 

do 

Windlass rig 

Chain pump 

No rig 

Chain pump 

Windlass rig 

do 

Two-bucket rig. . 

Windlass rig 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Two-bucket rig.. 

Chain pump 

Windlass rig 

Chain pnmp 

Windlass rig 

Pitcher pump, 

horse pump, 

and windlass 

rig. 

Deep- well pump, 

Windlass rig 

do 

No rig 



Nonfailing. 
Nonfailing. For 
assay see p. 158. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing. Aban- 
doned. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. 
Nonfailing. Aban- 
doned. 
Abandoned. 
Nonfailing. 
Nonfiiling. For 
analysis see p. 158. 
Nonfailing, 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
NonfaiJing. For 
analysis see p. 158. 
NonfaiUng. 
Fails. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fails. 



Nonfailing. 

Do. 

Do. 
House destroyed. 



MARLBORO. 



161 



Wells duff in stratiflcd drift in Glastonbury — Continued. 



No. on 
PI. VI. 



O^sTier. 



Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 







g 


d 


c8 


09 


% 


O 


^•3 


•o 


j: 


■^B 








■S 


ex 


o. 


O 




<B 


^ 





P 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


12.5 


5.3 


7.2 


19. .5 


16.4 


3.1 


17.5 


10.0 


7.5 


12.7 


9.2 


3.5 


38.6 


3.5.9 


2.7 


18.9 


12.6 


6.3 


15.6 


13.7 


1.9 


23.0 


17.5 


5.5 


14.6 


12.5 


2.1 


18.7 


14.4 


4.3 



Rig. 



Remarks. 



42 
45 
46 

48 I 

50 

57 Jolui Vail. 



Albert L. Peck. 



5g 

59 'J!Vv."]3ailVy.' 



Valley... 

do... 

Plain 

do... 

Terrace . . 
do... 



.do. 
.do. 



.do. 
.do. 



Feet. 
400 
4tO 
435 
450 
4,50 
260 

250 
400 

390 
380 



Chain pump . . . 
Windlass rig . . . 
Chain pump . . . 
Windlass rig. . . 
Two-buclcet rig. 
Windlass rig . . . 

Two-bucket rig. 
Windlass rig . . . 

House pump . . . 
Windlass rig . . . 



Nonfailing. 

Do. 
Nonfailing. For 

assiy see p. 158. 
Nonfailing. 
Fails. For assay 

see p.] 58. 
NonfaiUng. 
Fails. 



Drilled wells in Glastonbury. 









a oJ 


a 


o 


o a 




b, 












o S 










S • 






No. on 
PI. VI. 


Owner.. 


Topo- 
graphic 
situation. 




P. 

1 




5fe . 


1 

C8 




Kind 
of rock. 


Remarks. 








w 


^ 


O 


Q 


fi 


>■■ 












Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


In. 


Gaits. 






29 


Herliert E. Mitchell 


Slope. .. 


360 


224 


10 





6 


14 


Sand- 
stone. 


Water flows from 
casing. 


40 


M. R. Tryoa 


...do....| 430 


64 


12 


10 


6 


12 


...do.. 





MARLBORO. 



AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. 

Marlboro is a small highland farming town in the southeast 
corner of Hartford County. It is 10 miles east of Middletown and 
15 miles southeast of Hartford. The town has an area of 23 square 
miles, of which four-fifths is wooded. The town keeps in condition 
about 40 miles of roads, and there are in addition 7 miles of roads 
which have been discontinued. Eventually the State trunk line be- 
tween Hartford and New London wall run through the town. There 
are stations of the Air Line division of the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford Railroad at East Hampton and Lyman Viaduct. Marl- 
boro, a rather straggling village, is the only settlement. In 1803 the 
town was organized, about 4 square miles of territory being taken 
from Glastonbury, 9 from Hebron, and 9 from Colchester. In 1813 
1| square miles more was annexed from Glastonbury/ In 1910 the 
population w^as 302, a decrease of 20 from the population in 1900. 
This is equivalent to a density of population of 13 inhabitants to the 



154444*^ 



Hall, Mary, Marlboro, Conn., from 1736 to 1903, p. 34. 
-20 11 



162 CtEound water iisr nor walk and other areas, conn. 

square mile. Marlboro has the sraallest population of the towns in 
the State, and only one other town has a lower density of population. 
In general there has been a very decided decrease in population. In 
the first half of the nineteenth century there was some manufacture 
of cotton cloth for shipment to the South, but this ceased during the 
Civil War and was never revived. About 1885 a mill was built for 
the manufacture of silk, especially ribbon, and a number of work- 
men were brought in, but this enterprise was not long lived. The 
changes in population shown in the following table reflect the vary- 
ing prosperity of the mills and the general tendency to move from 
farms to manufacturing centers : 

Population of Marlboro, 1810-1910.'' 



Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Per cent 
change. 


Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Percent 
change. 


1810 


720 
839 
704 
713 
832 
682 




1870 


476 
391 
582 
322 
302 


-30 


1820 


+ \7 
-16 
-1- 1 
+ 17 
-18 


1880 


-18 


1830 


1890 


-i-49 


1840 


1900 


—45 


1850 


1910 


- 6 


1880.. . . 











a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1919, p. 639. 

At present the principal industry is mixed agriculture. There is 
also considerable charcoal burning and production of native lumber. 

SURFACE features. 

Marlboro lies in a thoroughlj^ dissected plateau region. The 
hilltops range in elevation from 500 feet above sea level in the 
south part of the town to 700 feet in the north. They are remnants 
of a flat surface below which the streams have cut deep valleys, 
and most of tliem are in the form of ridges elongated in a north- 
south direction. Their direction is not dependent on the rock struc- 
ture but is rather the result of the original direction of the streams. 
There are several points about 720 feet above sea level, the greatest 
elevation in Marlboro. The lowest point is where Blockledge River 
crosses the Colchester toAvn line at an elevation of 200 feet above 
sea level. 

Dickinson Creek, Blockledge River, and Fawn Brook and their 
tributaries drain Marlboro. They are all tributary to Salmon 
River, which enters Connecticut River at East Haddam. 



water-bearing formations. 



Three types of bedrock have been recognized by Gregory ^ in 
JSIarlboro — the Bolton schist, Maromas granite gneiss, and Hebron 



* Gregory, II. E., and Robinson, H. H., Preliminary 
Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 



geological map of Connecticut : 



MARLBORO. 163 

pieiss. The unconsolidated mantle rocks include till and stratified 
drift. The former is the most important source of <)fround water in 
the town. 

xSV7^isY and gneiss. — The Bolton schist underlies an area of a quarter 
of a square mile in the west corner of Marlboro where it borders on 
East Hampton and Glastonbury. It is a fairly typical mica schist 
composed of granules of quartz and feldspar in large part surrounded 
and enwrapped by flakes of mica. The mica flakes, by reason 
of their cleavability and roughly parallel arrangement, give the 
rock its fissile character, and they also give it a gray color with 
something of a silvery luster. 

The Maromas granite gneiss underlies a northward-striking belt 
of country a mile wide adjoining the Bolton schist area and west of 
Marlboro Pond. This rock is of variable character, but typically 
it is a biotite gneiss composed essentiallj- of quartz, feldspar, and 
biotite (black mica) wath small amounts of accessory minerals. Its 
boundary against the Bolton schist is not sharp, for it sends stringers 
into the schist. 

The Hebron gneiss, which underlies about 85 per cent of the area 
of the town, according to Gregory,^ '• varies from a granitic gneiss to 
highly fissile schist."" On one side it grades into a true gneiss and 
on the other into schists. 

These rocks are to all intents and purposes alike as far as their 
ability to carry water is concerned. The stresses which metamor- 
phosed them also made many cracks and joints. Water which falls 
as rain is in part absorbed by the overlying unconsolidated till and 
stratified drift. Some of this water is slowly transmitted to the net- 
work of interconnecting joints, through which it circulates under 
gravity, and it may be recovered by means of drilled wells. A hole 
drilled into these rocks at anj^ point will probably cut one or more 
of these water-bearing fissures and so procure a supply of water 
adequate in abundance and reliability for ordinary domestic and 
farm needs. 

Till, — Till overlies the bedrock of Marlboro, except for the numer- 
ous small areas of actual rock outcrop and an area of stratified drift 
in a valley northwest of Marlboro Pond. (See map, PL YII.) It 
forms a mantle that is in general 10 to 40 feet thick and is. com- 
posed of all the debris plucked and ground along beneath the ice. 
Pebbles, cobbles, and boulders of great and small size are embedded 
in a matrix of tightl}- packed sand, silt, clay, and fine rock flour. 
The constituent particles are in large part angular, so that they inter- 
lock and bind one another together. Much of the till is in conse- 
quence very dense and tough, as is indicated by the name " hardpan " 



* Rice, W. N., and Gregory. H. E., Manual of the geology of Connecticut : Connecticut 
Oeol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, p. 141, 1906. 



164 GROUND WATER* IN NOR WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

that is often applied to it. It has a moderate porosity and is able 
to absorb and transmit considerable water. The water is most 
abundant in the zone immediately overlying the bedrock and in a few 
widely scattered lenses of partly washed and roughly stratified ma- 
terial within the till. Wells dug into the till to a depth below the 
lowest level reached by the top of the saturated zone in times of 
drought will procure satisfactory supplies of water. Measurements 
were made of 31 such wells in Marlboro in September, 1916. Of 
these wells 19 were said to be nonf ailing and 7 were said to fail ; the 
reliability of the remaining 5 wells was not ascertained. The fol- 
lowing table summarizes the data collected concerning the depths 
of these 31 wells : 

Summary of roells dug in till in MarJhoro. 



Maximum 

Minimum . 
Average. . 



Total 
depth. 


Depth to 
water. 


Feet. 
29.2 
8.7 
15.7 


. Feet. 
21.5 
4.1 

in. 7 

i 



Depth of 

water in 

well. 



Feet. 
16.8 
1.6 
5.0 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

The accompanying table gives the results of two analyses and three 
assays of samples of ground water collected in the town of Marlboro. 
The waters are low in mineral content, except Nos. 19 and 26, which 
are moderately mineralized. Nos. 12 and 27 are very soft, Xo. 23 
is soft, and Nos. 19 and 26 are comparatively hard. All are accept- 
able for domestic use in so far as this may be determined by a chem- 
ical investigation of their mineral content. Nos. 12 and 27 are suit- 
able for boiler use, but the other three are rated fair for boiler use be- 
cause they contain considerable amounts of scale-forming ingredi- 
ents. No. 19, moreover, is liable to cause a little trouble by foaming. 
Nos. 12 and 27 are sodium-carbonate waters : Nos. 23 and 26 ai'e cal- 
cium-carbonate in type; and No. 19 is classed as a sodium-chloride 
water. 



MARLBORO. 



166 



Vhcuiiftrl roiti position and rla-^sification of [rround xntcrs in Marlboro.'^ 

[Parts per million. Collected Dec. 5, 1916; analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers and V. FT. Kidwell. 
Numbers of analyses and assays correspond to those used on Pi. VI.] 



SlUca (SiOs) 

Iron(Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K)<l 

Carhouatc radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO,) 

Chloride radicle (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total dissolved solids at 180° C . . . 

Tola 1 hardness as CaCOs 

Scale-forming constituents d 

Foaming constituents d 

Chemical character 

Probability of corrosion/ 

Quality for boiler use 

Quality for domestic use 



Analyses, fc 



19 

.42 
4.9 
2.5 
13 

.0 
27 
19 
4.8 
3.1 
78 
d22 
38 
3.5 

Na-C03 
(?) 

Good. 
Good. 



22 

.10 
3.6 
1.6 

9.8 
.0 
29 
4.8 
5.2 ■ 
.94 
60 
die 
35 
26 

Na-COa 
N 

Good. 
Good. 



Assays. c 



72 

79' 

43 

133 



d370 
153 

18(1 
190 

Na-Cl 
(?) 
Fair. 
Good. 



0.16 



.0 

S.O 
18 



100 
10 

Ca-COs 

Fair. 
' Jood. 



" For looadon and other descriptive information see p. 166. 

b For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results see pp. 52-60. 

c Approximations; for methods used in assays and reliability of results see pp. 52-60. 

<J Computed. 

eLess than 10 parts per million. 

/Based on computed quantity; (?) = corrosion uncertain, N=noncorrosive. 



RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. 



0.07 



Trace 
.0 
91 
18 
16 



1JI6O 
117 

140 
(«) 

Ca^O., 
(?) 
Fair. 
Good. 



The only spring visited in Marlboro (No. 9, PL VI) i.-, so situated 
on a slope that the water is brought to the surface by a ledge of 
bedrock. It yields about half a gallon a minute. 



166 GROUND WATER IN NOR WALK AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 

Dug wells in Marlhoro. 



No. on 
PI. VI. 



Owner. 



Louis Krumholtz. 



H. G. Austin- 



Herman Dermler. 



...do... 

Ridge. . 

Slope. . . 
...do. . . 

Plateau 

Slope. . . 
L. L. Buell :...do... 



R. Hurowitz. 



Topo- 
graphic 
position. 



Slope. . . 
...do.. .'. 
Plain. . . 
Slope. . . 
Ridge. . . 
Slope. . . 

...do 

Low hill 
Slope. . . . 
Swale... 
Slope. . . 



■^-; 
a > 
■■2 es 

3 



Robbins . 



E. E. Hall. 



Methodist Church . . 



Mrs. A. R. Gray.. 
B.S. Lord 



Plateau 
Slope. . , 
...do.... 



Plateau . 



Slope. 
...do.. 
...do.. 



.do. 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



Feet. 
S?0 
570 
420 
410 
480 
610 
410 
410 
510 
590 
410 



430 
485 
440 
495 
550 
450 
665 



650 
600 
550 



550 
410 
500 



420 
400 
390 
380 
400 



Feet. 
16.7 
27.1 
16.1 
16.5 
20.4 
21.6 
18.4 
18.4 
17.4 
8.7 
17.3 



15.1 
15.2 
10.3 
10.6 
13.0 
14.1 
15.8 



12.2 
12.8 
22.1 



13.8 
14.6 
15.3 



10.7 



9.4 
29.2 
10.4 
17.6 
14.0 



Feet. 

5.2 
10.3 
11.2 
14.3 
13.8 
16.4 
15.9 
15.5 
13.1 

2.8 
15.1 



12.0 
8.7 
7.0 
9.7 

11.3 
6.4 



5.3 
9.0 
16.3 



9.3 
9.0 
12.5 



6.5 
21.5 

6.4 
12.6 
11.1 



^S 



Feet. 
11.5 
16.8 
4.9 
2.2 
6.6 
5.2 
2.5 
2.9 
4.3 
5.9 
2.2 



5.2 
3.2 
1.6 
3.6 
3.3 
2. ,8 
9.4 



3.8 
5.8 



4.5 
5.6 
2.8 



2.9 
7.7 
4.0 
5.0 
2.9 



Rig. 



Sweep ng 

One-bucket rig. 

Sweep rig 

Chain pump. .. 
Windlass rig. . . 

Sweep rigi 

Windlass ng. . . 

do 

do 

No rig 

Chain pump. . . 



Windlass rig.. 
One-bucket rig 
Windlass rig. . 
Chain pump . . 
Windlass rig. . 
House pump.. 
Chain pump... 



House pump . . . 

Windlass rig 

Windlass o n 
counterbal- 
ance rig. 

Windlass rig 



do 

Chain pump . . . 
Air-pressure sys- 
tem. 



Remarks. 



Gra-saty system 

Two-bucket rig. . 

Windlass rig 

No rig 

Chain pump . . . . 
Windlass rig 

and house 

pump. 



Abandoned. 
Nonf ailing. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fails. 

Do. 



Nonf ailing. 

Nonfailing. Water 
from till. For an- 
alysis see p. 105 

Fails. Rockbottom. 
Do. 

Fails. 
Do. 

Nonfailing. 
Do. 

NonfaiUng. In rock 
11 feet. Water 
from gneiss. For 
assay see p. 165. 

Nonfailing. 

Fails. 

Nonfailing. 



Fails. Water from 
till. For assay 
see p. 165. 

Nonfailing. 

Nonfailing. Water 
from till. For 
assay see p. 165. 

Nonfailing. Water 
from till. For an- 
alysis see p. 105. 

NonfaiUng. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 



INDEX. 



A. rase. 

Acknowledgnipnts for aid 10 

Addison, location of 15;i 

Air pip^suif system, oppration of 40 

Algae, control of, in re><ervoirs 49 

Aiial.v>;ps, mechanical, of stratified 

drift 2.-'. 

Analyses and assays of ground waters, 

accuracy of 55-56 

averages of 62-64 

interpretation of 57—60 

methods and results of 52-64, 

89. 101. 108. 114. 122, 129, 
136. 145. 151, 158, 165 

Area of towns in the areas 16 

.s'ec also under the sneral towns. 

Areas examined, locations of 9 

Artesian wells, possibilities of 32-34 

example of 127 

Assays of ground waters, usefulness 

of 56 

B. 

Bald Hill Street. Wilton, location of- 118 

Bedrock, water In 28-29,29-30,31.32 

See fl/.so water-bearing forma- 
tions under the several 
towns. 
Bennetts Bridge, run-off of Pom- 

peraug River at 14 

Birch Mountain, Glastonbury, height 

of 154 

Boiler use. suitaliility of ground 

watern for 57-59 

Branchville. location of 95. 118 

r.rown re.'iervoir. Lewisboro. N. Y., 
location and capacity 

of 90 

P-ucket ri.ffs for wells, kinds of 35-36 

Buckingham, location of 153 

C. 

("annondalc. location of 118 

Cn rlion dioxide, corrosion of lead 

pipes l)y 51 

removal of. from public water 

supplies 49 

Chambers, Alfred A., analyses of 

ground waters by 52-64, 

71, 80, 89, 101, 108. 114. 122. 
129. 136. 145, 151, 158, 165 
Chain p\iiiips. kinds and construc- 
tion of 37-38 

Chemical character of ground waters. 

determination of 56 



Page. 
(Miloride, contamination indicated 

by 60-61 

normal amounts of 6(>-l)l 

Climate of the areas 11-12 

Conglomerate, occurrence of 27-28 

Connecticut, map of, showing areas 
covered by water-sup- 
ply papers 8 

Connecticut River, areas drained hy_ 127, 
133, 142, 150,154. 162 

change in course of 133 

Contamination of ground waters, de- 
tection and prevention 

of 60-62 

Cranberry, location of 84 

Croton River, run-off of 15 



D. 



Darlen. area, population and indiis- 

tries of 16. 66-67 

drainage of 67 

estuary in, plate showing 66 

ground water in. luality of 70-71 

plant of the Tokeneke Water Co. 

in. plate showing 72 

public water supplies of 71-72 

stratified drift in. plate show- 
ing 66 

surface features of 67 

water-bearing formations in 67-70 

wells in. records of 68. 70. 72-74 

Data., sources and nature of 9-10 

Davis. W. M.. cited 141 

Deep-well pump, construction of 36-37 

Dewey. J. S.. well of. Inflow into 41-4:2 

Domestic use. suitability of ground 

waters for 59-60 

Drainage of the areas 12-15 

f^ee also under the several towns. 
Drift, stratified, differences from 

till 24 

Stratified, exposure of, in Da- 

rieii, plate showing 66 

exposure of, in Thonipson- 

vlUe, plates showing 134 

nature of 22-24 

plain surfaced with, in East 
Granby, plate show- 
ing 72 

yielding of water by 26-27 

See aiso water-bearing forma- 
tions under the several 
towns. 

167 



168 



INDEX. 



B. Page. 
East Glastonbury, massive granite 
gneiss in, plate show- 
ing 154 

East Granby, area and population 

of 16, 124-125 

drainage of 127 

flowing well in, plate showing — 126 
geology and surface features 

of : 125-127 

ground water in, quality of 129 

stratified-drift plain in, plate 

showing 72 

water-bearing formations in 127-129 

wells in, records of 128, 129, 130 

East Hartford water works, service 

in Glastonbury by 159 

East Norwalk, public water supply 

of 90 

Enfield, area, population, and indus- 
tries of 16. 131-132 

drainage of 133 

geology and surface features 

of 132-133 

ground water in, quality of 136 

public water supplies of 136-137 

springs in, records of 139 

stratified drift in, plates show- 
ing 134 

water bearing formations in — 133-136 
wells in, records of__ 134, 135, 137-139 

Enfield Canal, power from 148-149 

Eskers, occurrence of 24 

Estuary in Darien, plate showing 66 



F. 



Farmington River, areas drained 

by 127, 142, 150 

Filter galleries. See Infiltration gal- 
leries. 

Filtration plant of South Norwalk 
waterworks, operation 
of—: 91 

PIvemlle River, areas drained by 67, 85 

course of 83, 85 



G. 



Gaylordsvllle, precipitation and run- 
off in Housatonic drain- 
age basin above 15 

Geologic history of Connecticut 17-19, 

141-142 

Georgetown, location of 118 

Glaciation, effects of 19 

Glastonbury, area, population, and 

industries of 16, 152-153 

drainage of 154 

ground water in, quality of 158 

public water .supplies of 159 

surface features of 153-154 

water-bearing formations in 154-158 

wells and springs in, records 

of 156-157. 159-161 



Page. 
Glastonbury area, geologic map 

of In pocket. 

topography of 10-11 

map showing In pocket. 

woodlands of 16 

Gneiss, massive, exposure of, in East 
Glastonbury, plate 

showing 154 

origin and distribution of 30-31 

See also water-bearing forma- 
tions under the seiJ- 
eral towns. 

Gravity, conduction of water by 39 

Greenfield, Mass., ground-water plant 

at 50 

Gregory, Herbert E., investigations 

by 8-9 

Rice, W. N.. and, cited 18, 

27-28, 77, 155 

Griffin, I. H., flowing well of 127 

Ground waters, classification of 56—60 

occurrence and circulation of — 24—27 
Grupe reservoir. New Canaan, loca- 
tion and capacity of 90 

H. 

Hardness of ground waters, deter- 
mination of 57 

Hartford, monthly precipitation at — 12 

Hazardville, location of 131 

Hopewell, location of 153 

Housatonic drainage basin, precipi- 
tation and run-off in, 

above Gaylordsville 15 

Huckleberry reservoir. Wilton, loca- 
tion and capacity of 91 

Hurlbutt Street, Wilton, location of_ 118 
Hyde Park, Mass., ground-ivater 

plant at 50 

I. 

Infiltration galleries, ari-angement 

and use of 43, 50 

Inflow into wells, tests on 41-43 

Iron, removal of, from public water 

supplies 49 

Irrigation, wells for 38-39 

J. 

Joints, occurrence and spacing of_ 29, 31-32 

K. 

Kames, occurrence of 24 

Kettle holes, occurrence of 24 

Kidwell. C. H., analyses of ground 

waters by 52-64, 

71, 80, 89, 101, 108, 114, 122, 
129, 136, 145, 151, 158, 165 

L. 

Limestone, ground water in 32 

nature and distribution of 32, 98 



INDEX. 



169 



Page. 
T,<iw<'ll. Mass., sfound-watfr phints 

at 50-5:i 

Lyon I'laiii. location <if in4-lvl5 

M. 

MaiiKanesie. rpmoval of. from public 

wat»M' supplies 49 

Mauitick Mountaiu, SuflSeld, struc- 
ture of 141 

Map, .sreolnjcic. of the GlaslonhHry 

area In pocl?et. 

seolojflc. of the Norwalk area 

In pocket. 

of the SuflSeld area In pocket. 

topographic, of Connecticut, 
showing areas covei'ert 
by water - supply pa- 
pers S 

of the Olastonbiiry nrea 

In pocket. 

' of the Norwalk area In pocket. 

of the Suffleld area In pocket. 

Marlboro, area and population of 16, 

161-162 

ground water in. quality of 164-165 

surface features of 162 

water-bearing formations in — 162-164 

wells in. reeoi'ls of 164, 165-166 

Metal-bucket pump, construction of — 37. 38 
Middletown, monthly precipitation 

at 12 

Mill River, area drained by 97 

Mineralization of ground waters, de- 
termination of 57 

Mud Brook, area drained by 111 

drowned valley of 110 

N. 

Naubuc. location of 153 

Newburyport, Mass.. ground-water 

plant It 52 

New Canaan, area, population, aod 

industries of 16. 74-76 

ground water in, quality of SO 

public water supply in Si 

surface features of 76 

water-bearing formations in 76-80 

wells and springs in, records 

of 81-83 

Newton. Mass.. ground-water plant 

at 52 

Nitrates, contamination indicated 

by 61 

Noioton River, area drained by 67 

Northern Connecticut Light & Power 

Co.. service of 145 

Northfield. location of 104 

North Wilton reservoir, location and 

<apacity of 91, 119 

Nr>rw:ilk. area, population, and indus- 
tries of 16. 88-85 

ground water in, quality of 80 

public water supply of 9(1 



Page. 

Norwalk, monthly precipitation at 12 

surface features of 85-86 

water-bearing formations in .S6-S!) 

wells in, records of 92-04 

Noi'walk area, geologic map of__ In pocket. 

topography of 10 

map showing In pocket. 

woodlands of 15-16 

Norwalk River, areas drained by_ 96-07, 

105. 119 
features of 83, 85-86 

P. 

Peak Mountain, structure of 140, 141 

Pine Mountain, Ridgefield, height 

of 10 

Pitcher-pump, construction of 36-37 

Plaiuville, gTOund-water plant at 52 

Pomperaug River, run-off of, at Ben- 
netts Briilge 14 

Population of Connecticut, distribu- 
tion of 7 

of the areas by towns 16 

Sep also under the several towns. 

Precipitation in the areas 11-12 

Problems relating to water supplies, 

nature of 7-8 

Pump, centrifugal, construction and 

use of 39 

Pumps for dug wells, kinds of 36-41 

Purification of public water supplies, 

means of 49 

Q. 

Quality of ground water, tests of 52-64 

R. 

Rainfall. See Precipitation. 
Ram, hydraulic, installation and ef- 
ficiency of 39-40 

Recovery of J. S. Dewey's well, test 

on 41-42 

Rice, W. N., and Gregory. H. E., 

cited 18. 27-28, 77. 155 

Rldgebury, location of 95 

Ridgefield, area, population, and in- 
dustries of 16,94-95 

drainage of 96-97 

ground water in, quality of 100-101 

public water supply of 101-102 

springs in, records of 103 

surface features of 95-97 

water-bearing formations in__ 97-100 
wells in, records of— 99, 100, 102-103 

Rocks, crystalline, distribution of 30 

crystalline, gi-ound water in 31-32 

lithology of 30-31 

Rowayton, location of 84 

Runoff from various drainage l)asins 
in Connecticut and ad- 
Joining States 14-15 

Russell, H. L.. Turneaure, F. B., 

and, cited 43 



170 



INDEX. 



S. 

Page. 

Saiulstoue, occurrence of 27—28, 

127, 133-134, 141, 142, 150 

Sasco Brook, area drained by 111 

Saugatnck, location of 110 

Saugatuck River, areas drained 

by 96, 105, 111, 119 

Scantic River, area drained by 133 

cutting of valley by 133 

Schists, origin and distribution of — 30 

>vpe also water-bearing forma- 
tions under the several 
towns. 

Scitico, location of 131 

Scott reservoir, Lewisboro, N. Y., 
location and capacity 

of 90 

Sea water, contamination Isy 60 

Sfev/age, contamination by 60, 61 

Siiaker Station, location of 131 

Shale, occurrence of 27—28 

Siivermine reservoir, Wilton, loca- 
tion and capacity of- 90, 119 
Siivermine River, areas drained by_ 97, 119 

reservoirs on 90 

Siphon, conduction of water by 39 

South Noi-walk, filtering plant of 91 

public water supplies of 90-92 

Spoonville, location of 125 

Springs, development of 46-47 

kinds of 34-35 

records of— 83, 103, 130, 146, 159, 165 

Still River, area drained by 96 

Stony Brook, Darien, area drained 

by 67 

Norwalk and Westport, course 

of 86,111 

Suffield, area and population of_ 16, 139—140 
geology and surface features 

of 140-142 

ground water in, quality of__ 144-145 

public water supplies of 145 

water-bearing formations in_ 142-144 
wells in, records of— 143, 144, 146-148 

SulHeld area, geologic map of In pocket. 

topography of 10 

map showing In pocket. 

woodlands of 16 

Surface waters of the areas 12—15 



T. 



Tanks, seasonal difficulties with 40-41 

Tariffville, location of 125 

offset trap ridges near, plate 

showing 126 

Temperature of ground water, varia- 
tions in 64-65 

Thompsonville, location of 131 

stratified drift at, plates show- 
ing 134 

Till, differences of, from stratified 

drift 24 

nature of 20-21, 22 



Page. 

Till, water in, capacity for 21-22 

yielding of 26-27 

t<ee also water-bearing forma- 
tions under the several 
• towns. 

Titicus, location of 95 

Titicus River, area drained by 97 

Tokeneke Water Co., of Darien, 
plant of, plate show- 
ing 72 

Topography of the areas 10-11 

Ti'ap rocks, ground water in . 29-30 

nature and distribution of 29, 127 

offset ridges of, near Tariffville, 

plate showing 126 

Triasslc sedimentary rocks, distribu- 
tion of 27 

ground water in 28-29 

lithology and stratigraphy of 27-28 

Turneaure, F. B., and Russell, H. L., 

cited 43 

U. 

Uses for water in the areas sur- 
veyed 7 

V. 

Valley Forge, location of 105 

W. 

Waccabuc River, area drained by 97 

Water-bearing formations, classes 

of 20-21 

Water supply, public, advantages of 

ground water for_^ 47 

public, ground-water plants for, 

descriptions of 50-52 

ground-water plants for, in- 
stallation and manage- 
ment of 47-49 

Water-supply papers, map of Con- 
necticut showing areas 

covered by 8 

Water table, fluctuation of 25-26 

Well, flowing, in Bast Granby, de- 
scription of 127 

flowing, plate showing 126 

Wells, artesian, possibilities of 32-34 

drilled, construction and equip- 
ment of 44-45 

success of 45-46 

driven, construction and use of_ 43-44 

dug, construction of 35 

lifting devices for 35—41 

yield of 41-43 

for irrigation, construction and 

equipment of 38-39 

sanitary relations of 36, 38, 39 

surface protection for 62 

Westfleld River, area drained by 142 

West Norwalk, location of 84 

Weston, area and population of 16, 

104-105 
ground water in, quality of 107-108 



INDEX. 



171 



Page. 

Weston, surface foaturcs of 105 

wati'V-bi'iiring formations in 105-107 

wplls ill. r.'cords of 107, 108-10!) 

Wostport. area, population, and in- 
dustries of 100-110 

.urouiid water in, quality of__ 113-114 

puMic water supplies of 114-115 

surface features of 110-111 

■water hearing formations in__ 111-ll.S 
wells in, records of-_ 112. U.S. 115-117 

Wilton, area and population of_ 16, 1 17-118 

ground water in, quality of 122 

surface features of 118-119 

water-bearing formations in 119-121 

wells in. records of 121, 122-124 

Wilton reservoir, Wilton, location 

and capacity of 90—91 



Page. 
Windmill, use of 40 

Windsor I>ooks, area, population, and 

industries of 16,148 149 

drainage of 150 

ground water in, quality of 151 

public water supply in 152 

surface features of 149-150 

water-bearing formations of_- 150-151 

wells in, records of 151, 152 

Winnipauk. location of 84 

Woodlands of the areas l.'S-IO 

Src aUo the .irrrral towvs. 



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WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 470 PLATE VI 




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TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE GLASTONBURY AREA, CONNECTICUT 

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